The revolt of 1857 was the conscious beginning
of the Independence struggle against the colonial tyranny of the British. There
are various names for the revolt of 1857 – India’s First War of Independence,
Sepoy Mutiny, etc.
The revolt began on May 10,
1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny. It was initiated by sepoys in the Bengal
Presidency against the British officers.
This war of Independence
marked the end of rule by the British East India company. Post this, India was
directly ruled by the British government through representatives known as
Governor-General.
This article provides all
relevant information related to the Revolt of 1857 and its causes and effects
Revolt of 1857 (UPSC Notes):-
Immediate Reason of Revolt of
1857
The immediate factor was the
introduction of the ‘Enfield’ rifle. The cartridge had to be bitten off before
loading it into the gun. Indian sepoys believed that the cartridge was greased
with either pig fat or made from cow fat. This was against the Hindu and Muslim
sentiments and religious ideologies. Thus they were reluctant to use the
‘Enfield’ rifle. This was a flashpoint to enrage the soldiers against the
Britishers. This was believed to be the immediate factor for the revolt
of 1857.
Causes of Revolt of 1857
The revolt of 1857 was
initiated due to various factors which are stated below:
- Religious & Social
Causes – racism or racial discrimination was believed to be a major reason
for the revolt of 1857 wherein Indians were exploited and were kept away
from mixing with Europeans. The whites also started interfering in the
religious and cultural affairs of Indians and tortured them as well.
To know more about the Social causes for revolt of
1857, refer to the linked article.
- Political Causes – The
British expansion had led to the propagation of unjust policies that led
to the loss of power of the Nawabs and Zamindars residing at various
places of India. The introduction of unfair policies like the policy of
Trade and Commerce, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance), the policy of war and
annexation, the policy of direct subordination (doctrine of lapse), the policy of
misgovernance (through which Awadh was annexed) greatly hampered the
interests of the rulers of the native states, and they one by one became
victims of British expansionism. Therefore, those rulers, who lost their
states to the British, were naturally against the British and took sides
against them during the revolt.
- Economic Factors -There
were various reforms in the taxation and revenue system that affected the
peasants’ heavily. British Government had imposed and introduced various
administrative policies to expand their territory.
The major policies are listed
below:
- Permanent Settlement in
Bengal
- Mahalwari settlement in
Central India & Ryotwari settlement in southern India
To more about such
important land revenue systems, check the linked article.
These three settlements were
highly exploitative, and in particular, the Permanent settlement had created a
devastating impact. Thus the peasants were greatly encouraged to overthrow the
British Government from India and led to their active participation in the
revolt of 1857.
Military Factors – The Indian
soldiers faced a lot of discrimination from the British officials with respect
to their salaries, pensions, promotions. Indians were subjugated in the
military while their European counterparts faced no such discrimination. This
led to discontent and was a major military factor that resulted in the revolt
of 1857.
To know more about military factors in detail, refer to the
linked article.
Vellore Mutiny
The Vellore Mutiny took place even before
the revolt of 1857 (50 years before). It erupted on 10th July 1806 in Vellore,
present-day Tamil Nadu, and lasted only for a day, but it was brutal and it was
the first major mutiny by the Indian sepoys in the East India Company.
Impact of Revolt of 1857
The revolt of 1857 shook the
foundation of British East India Company and disclosed their inefficiency in
handling the Indian administration. The major impact was the introduction of
Government of India act which abolished the rule of British East India Company
and marked the beginning of British raj that bestowed powers in the hands of
the British government to rule India directly through representatives.
To know more about the
major Impact of the revolt of 1857, refer to the linked article.
Causes of Failure of the
revolt of 1857
The revolt was eventually not
successful in ousting the British from the country because of several factors.
- The sepoys lacked one
clear leader; there were several. They also did not have a coherent plan
by which the foreigners would be routed.
- Indian rulers who aided
the revolt did not envision any plan for the country after the British
were defeated.
- Majorly northern India
was affected by this revolt. The three presidencies of Bengal, Bombay and
Madras remained mostly unaffected. The Sikh soldiers also did not take
part in the rebellion.
List of Important Leaders
associated with the revolt of 1857
|
Place |
Revolt of 1857 -Important
Leaders |
|
Delhi |
Bahadur Shah II, General
Bakht Khan |
|
Lucknow |
Begum Hazrat Mahal, Birjis
Qadir, Ahmadullah |
|
Kanpur |
Nana Sahib, Rao Sahib,
Tantia Tope, Azimullah Khan |
|
Jhansi |
Rani Laxmibai |
|
Bihar |
Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh |
|
Rajasthan |
Jaidayal Singh and Hardayal
Singh |
|
Farrukhabad |
Tufzal Hasan Khan |
|
Assam |
Kandapareshwar Singh,
Maniram Dutta Baruah |
|
Orissa |
Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal Shahi |
Revolt of 1857 (UPSC Notes):-Download
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Frequently Asked Questions –
Revolt of 1857
Who coined the name Sepoy
Mutiny?
In India, the term First War
of Independence was first popularized by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in his 1909
book The History of the War of Indian Independence.
What was the immediate reason
for the revolt of 1857?
The immediate factor was the
introduction of the ‘Enfield’ rifle. It was said that the cartridge of this
rifle was wrapped in the fat of cow and pig. The cartridge had to be bitten off
before loading it into the gun. Thus the Hindu and Muslim soldiers were
reluctant to use the ‘Enfield’ rifle.
What are the causes of revolt
1857?
There are many reasons that
led to the revolt of 1857. Major reasons for the revolt can be broadly
classified into – Political, Social, Economic, Religious, Military, etc. The
causes have been discussed in this article under respective sections.
**
The Indian Mutiny of
1857-59 was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against the rule of British
East India Company in India which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of
the British crown. The Revolt It was the first expression of organised resistance
against the British East India Company It began as a revolt of the sepoys of
the British East India Company’s army but eventually secured the participation
of the masses. The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the
British Historians), the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion(by the Indian
Historians), the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of
Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar). Causes of The Revolt Political
Cause British policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the
British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct
annexation. A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus
arousing fear in the minds of other ruling families who apprehended a similar
fate. Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of
Jhansi. Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Jaitpur, Sambalpur and Udaipur were also annexed. The annexation of Awadh by
Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration left thousands of nobles,
officials, retainers and soldiers jobless. This measure converted Awadh, a
loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and intrigue. 1/6 Doctrine of lapse:
The notable British technique called the Doctrine of Lapse was first
perpetrated by Lord Dalhousie in the late 1840s. It involved the British
prohibiting a Hindu ruler without a natural heir from adopting a successor and,
after the ruler died or abdicated, annexing his land. To those problems added
the growing discontent of the Brahmans, many of whom had been dispossessed of
their revenues or had lost lucrative positions. Social and Religious Cause The
rapidly spreading Western Civilisation in India was alarming concerns all over
the country. An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a
Hindu who had converted into Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties.
The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians
to Christianity. The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide,
and the legislation legalizing widow remarriage, were believed as threats to
the established social structure. Introducing western methods of education was
directly challenging the orthodoxy for Hindus as well as Muslims Even the
introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion. Economic
Cause In rural areas, peasants and zamindars were infuriated by the heavy taxes
on land and the stringent methods of revenue collection followed by the
Company. Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands
and repay their loans to money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they
had held for generations. Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry
class and had family ties in villages, so the grievances of the peasants also
affected them. After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx
of British manufactured goods into India, which ruined industries, particularly
the textile industry of India. Indian handicraft industries had to compete with
cheap machine- made goods from Britain. Military Causes 2/6 The Revolt of 1857
began as a sepoy mutiny: Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British
troops in India but were considered inferior to British soldiers. An Indian
sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of the same rank. They were required
to serve in areas far away from their homes. In 1856 Lord Canning issued the
General Services Enlistment Act which required that the sepoys must be ready to
serve even in British land across the sea. Lord Canning Charles John Canning
was the statesman and governor general of India during the Indian Mutiny of
1857. He became the first viceroy of India in 1858. The important events during
his tenure include: The Mutiny of 1857, which he was able to suppress
successfully Passing of Indian Councils Act, 1861 which introduced portfolio
system in India Withdrawal of “Doctrine of Lapse” which was one of the main
reasons of mutiny of 1858 Introduction of Code of Criminal Procedure Enactment
of Indian High Courts Act Indian Penal Code (1858) Immediate Cause The Revolt
of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges. A rumour
spread that the cartridges of the new enfield rifles were greased with the fat
of cows and pigs. Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the
paper on the cartridges. Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them. Lord
Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were
withdrawn but the damage had already been done. There was unrest in several
places. In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to
use the cartridge and attacked his senior officers. He was hanged to death on 8
April. On 9 May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were
sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment. Centres of The Revolt th th 3/6 The
revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the
borders of Rajasthan. The main centres of revolt in these regions namely
Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar. Lucknow: it was
the capital of Awadh. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums of the ex-king of
Awadh, took up the leadership of the revolt. Kanpur: the revolt was led by Nana
Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He joined the revolt primarily
because he was deprived of his pension by the British. The victory was short-
lived. Kanpur was recaptured by the British after fresh reinforcements arrived.
The revolt was suppressed with terrible vengeance. Nana Saheb escaped but his
brilliant commander Tantia Tope continued the struggle. Tantia Tope was finally
defeated, arrested and hanged. Jhansi: the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai
led the rebels when the British refused to accept the claim of her adopted son
to the throne of Jhansi. She fought gallantly against the British forces but
was ultimately defeated by the English. Gwalior: After Rani Lakshmi Bai
escaped, she was joined by Tantia Tope and together they marched to Gwalior and
captured it. Fierce fighting followed where the Rani of Jhansi fought like a
tigress but died, fighting to the very end. Gwalior was recaptured by the
British. Bihar: the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh who belonged to a royal
house of Jagdispur, Bihar. Suppression and The Revolt The Revolt of 1857 lasted
for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858. On July 8, 1858,
fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by
Lord Canning. Places of Revolt Indian Leaders British Officials who suppressed
the revolt Delhi Bahadur Shah II John Nicholson Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal
Henry Lawrence Kanpur Nana Saheb Sir Colin Campbell 4/6 Jhansi & Gwalior
Lakshmi Bai & Tantia Tope General Hugh Rose Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Sir
Colin Campbell Allahabad and Banaras Maulvi Liyakat Ali Colonel Oncell Bihar
Kunwar Singh William Taylor Why did the Revolt Fail? Limited uprising: although
the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained
unaffected by it. The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region. Sind,
Rajputana, Kashmir, most parts of Punjab. The large princely states, Hyderabad,
Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did
not join the rebellion The southern provinces did not take part in it. No
effective leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana
Saheb, Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not
offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole. Limited resources: the
rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other
hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms in India. No
participation of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the rich
merchants, traders and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the
revolt. Results of The Revolt End of company rule: the great uprising of 1857
was an important landmark in the history of modern India. The revolt marked the
end of the East India Company’s rule in India. Direct rule of the British
Crown:India now came under the direct rule of the British Crown. This was
announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation issued on
1 November 1858 in the name of the Queen. The Indian administration was taken
over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the British Parliament. The
India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the
country. 5/6 Religious tolerance: it was promised and due attention was paid to
the customs and traditions of India. Administrative change: the Governor
General’s office was replaced by that of the Viceroy. The rights of Indian
rulers were recognised. The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished. The right to adopt
sons as legal heirs was accepted. Military reorganisation: the ratio of British
officers to Indian soldiers increased but the armoury remained in the hands of
the English. It was arranged to end the dominance of the Bengal army.
Conclusion The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event in the history of
British rule in India. It united, though in a limited way, many sections of
Indian society for a common cause.Though the revolt failed to achieve the
desired goal, it sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism. Books written on the
Revolt of 1857 The Indian War of Independence by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Rebellion, 1857: A Symposium by Puran Chand Joshi The Indian Mutiny of 1857 by
George Bruce Malleson Great Mutiny by Christopher Hibbert Religion and Ideology
of the Rebels of 1857by Iqbal Hussain Excavation of Truth: Unsung Heroes of
1857 War of Independence by Khan Mohammad Sadiq Khan
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