Kautilya's Artha Saastra
Roughly written around 300 BC
Kautilya declares that his treatise brings together the principles already
established by the 'artha saastraas' hitherto existing (A2-K0). Kautilya and
Yaajnavalkya--who came first but it may be that yajnavalkya came before as he
is mentioed in Upanishads. Kautilya’s masterpiece was lost and was rediscovered
in early 20th century AD in Tanjore (South India) J J Meyer translated the work into German and
published in Leipzig in 1926. Shama Sastry's work in 1915 seems to be the first
translation into English. Bernhard Breloer in the 1920s on Kautilya's work,
says, "What, ..., must be borne in mind is that, while our knowledge of
India makes a halt before the Indus, we should not think that India is
therefore outside the world. The more we free ourselves from the prepossessed
ideas, the greater is the impetus given to the advance of our knowledge of
Indian History" [as quoted in Shama Sastry (1967). Also see Kangle (1986).
There is quite a bit of similarity in Kautilya Artha Saatra and Yaajnavalkya
Smrutee
1. Cartels,
Collusions, Adulteration and Middlemen: Merchants who conspire to prevent
sales, or try to affect sales and purchases playing with prices are punishable.
Middlemen who cause losses to merchants or purchasers by false means are
punishable. Adulteration of grains, oils, alkalis, salts, perfumes, and medicines
are punishable. The entire difference between the sale price of the merchant
and purchase price of the buyer is not the income or profit. The trader must
pay some part to the middlemen for their livelihood. (The punishment rates are
also specified here.) The profit rate allowed is 5 per cent for the local
produce, and 10 per cent for the foreign goods. (A2-K1)
2. Excess supplies: In the case of excess supplies, the market superintendent
should centralise the sales, and use this for daily wages (A kind of food-for
work programme). Sale of non-centralised stock should be prohibited until the
central stocks are exhausted. (A2-K2)
3. Taxes and Procurement: One of the chapters prescribes a salary structure for
the government's employees. In another chapter, treasury build-up is taken up.
This part stipulates the rates of tax collections applicable to cultivators,
merchants, animal farm households, and artisans. The king may collect
one-fourth or one-third of the harvest depending on the capacity to pay from
the rich cultivators in the good rainfall regions. He should not collect from
the cultivators with low quality land, from the households who generally
participate in public works, from the people who are poor and from those who
live in border areas. Rather he should help them with cattle and grains in
return for their services in developing waste lands. If the king wants further
amounts of grains beyond these taxes, he may purchase up to a maximum of
one-fourth of what is remaining with the cultivators after the requirements of
seed, feed are netted out, with payment made in gold (This corresponds to food
procurement policy) (A2-K3). Further, certain categories were mentioned from
whom such procurement should not be made. Later on, collection of taxes from
merchants, animal farm owners, forestry, artisans and even brothels were
discussed. Details are avoided here.
4. Importance of Treasury: Income from mines is a great source for building up
treasury; treasury oozes power. Thus the earth (i.e. kingdom) shines both by
the treasury and the power. (A2-K4)
Other :
Aksha Suktam in Rug Veda :Don't play with dice;
instead cultivate your corn fields with the help of your cattle and wife. Enjoy
your wealth with proper respect (A2-O3). Taittireeya Upanishat and Anna Suktam
in Yajur Veda : produce plenty of food; do not abuse it; that should be your
oath (A2-O4). Varaahamihira's Bruhat Samhita :
crop productivity and growth.
Shanti mantras: "Sam no astu dvipade, sam chatushpade"let there be
happiness to all the two-feet beings and four-feet beings.Peace be for
individuals, families, for the society and all the existence : to have peace
and happiness (Ome Saantih Saantih Saantihi; and Saantireva Saantihi--let there
be peace and peace and peace only). Sage Atri's "sarve janaassukhino
bhavantu, sarvey santu niraamayaah" (let all people be happy and
healthy).Rug Veda "Simply obtaining food is foolish with no purpose
served; truly, that is as bad as death. One becomes an absolute sinner, if he
consumes all the food by himself without feeding first the elders and
friends" (A2-S1).
"O Lord, see that none of our people or our cattle is frightened, or
becomes ill. We orient our minds towards that strong and enemy-destroying Lord
so that all the two-feet and four-feet beings in this village remain happy, and
shine with fullness with no worries. Kindly don't harm our elders, weak among
us, our kids born and offspring unborn yet, our parents and our bodies. Don't
you harm our horses, cows and our heroes! We offer oblations and salutations to
you" (A2-$3).( namakam)
Tanme manas Siva samkalpamastu (Let this be the auspicious intention of mine)!
Tannoe Rudrah prachoedayaat (Let Rudra the Lord initiate us)!
"These waters are the dearest to
our lives, giving us energy, keeping our limbs in attractive condition,
bringing us auspicious occasions and making us participate, caring for us like
mothers; they bring us progeny, ...," so on (A2-S5)."Know that
whoever realises this interdependence would possess virility, progeny and cattle"
(A2-S6). Bhupaala Mandanam : a king
should appropriately protect the nature's welfare, unconcerned about whether
something is a fact or not, liked or disliked by others (A2-S7).
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