Maurya Empire
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"Maurya"
redirects here. For the 2004 film, see Maurya
(film).
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Maurya Empire |
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322 BCE – 184 BCE |
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Territories of
the Maurya Empire conceptualized as core areas or linear networks separated
by large autonomous regions in the works of scholars such as:
historians Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund;[1] Burton Stein;[2] David Ludden;[3] and Romila Thapar;[4] anthropologists Monica L. Smith[5] and Stanley Tambiah;[4] archaeologist Robin Coningham;[4] and historical
demographer Tim Dyson.[6] |
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Maximum extent
of the Maurya Empire, as shown by the location of Ashoka's inscriptions, and visualized
by historians: Vincent Arthur
Smith;[7] R. C. Majumdar;[8] and historical geographer
Joseph E. Schwartzberg.[9] |
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Capital |
Pataliputra |
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Common languages |
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Religion |
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Government |
Absolute monarchy, as described
in Kautilya's Arthashastra |
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• 322–298 BCE |
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• 298–272 BCE |
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• 268–232 BCE |
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• 232–224 BCE |
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• 224–215 BCE |
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• 215–202 BCE |
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• 202–195 BCE |
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• 195–187 BCE |
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• 187–180 BCE |
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Historical era |
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322 BCE |
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• Assassination
of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga |
184 BCE |
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Area |
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261 BCE[19] |
3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi) |
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250 BCE[20] |
5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) |
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Population |
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• 261
BCE[21] |
50 million |
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Currency |
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![Territories of the Maurya Empire conceptualized as core areas or linear networks separated by large autonomous regions in the works of scholars such as: historians Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund;[1] Burton Stein;[2] David Ludden;[3] and Romila Thapar;[4] anthropologists Monica L. Smith[5] and Stanley Tambiah;[4] archaeologist Robin Coningham;[4] and historical demographer Tim Dyson.[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maurya_Empire,_c.250_BCE.png)
![Maximum extent of the Maurya Empire, as shown by the location of Ashoka's inscriptions, and visualized by historians: Vincent Arthur Smith;[7] R. C. Majumdar;[8] and historical geographer Joseph E. Schwartzberg.[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maurya_Empire,_c.250_BCE_2.png)
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Maurya Empire |
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically
extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia based
in Magadha, founded
by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE,
and existing in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE.[6] The Maurya Empire was centralized by the conquest
of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and its capital
city was located at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Outside
this imperial center, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the
loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities sprinkling it.[22][23][24] During Ashoka's rule
(ca. 268–232 BCE) the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and
arteries of the Indian subcontinent excepting the
deep south.[6] It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka's
rule, and dissolved in 185 BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha
by Pushyamitra Shunga and
foundation of the Shunga
dynasty in Magadha.
Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance
of Chanakya, author
of Arthasastra,[25] and overthrew the Nanda
Empire in c. 322 BCE. Chandragupta rapidly expanded
his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the satraps left
by Alexander the Great, and by 317 BCE
the empire had fully occupied northwestern India.[26] The Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and
founder of the Seleucid
Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus acquiring
territory west of the Indus River.[27][28]
Under the Mauryas, internal and external trade,
agriculture, and economic activities thrived and expanded across South Asia due
to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration,
and security. The Maurya dynasty built a precursor of the Grand Trunk
Road from Patliputra to Taxila[29] After the Kalinga War, the
Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka.
Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism and sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed
for the expansion of that faith into Sri Lanka, northwest
India, and Central Asia.[30]
The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period
has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million.[31] Among the Indo-Aryan
people of the Gangetic plain, who were conquered by the
Mauryan Empire, the caste system was consolidated, and the rights
of women declined, though "these developments did not affect people living
in large parts of the subcontinent."[32]
The empire's period of dominion was marked by exceptional
creativity in art, architecture, inscriptions and produced texts.[33] Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in
South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
The Arthashastra[34] and the Edicts of
Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of
Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is
the national emblem of the Republic of
India.
Contents
·
2History
§ 2.6.2Establishment
of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
·
5Economy
·
7Society
·
10Contacts
with the Hellenistic world
o
10.1Foundation
of the Empire
o
10.2Reconquest
of the Northwest (c. 317–316 BCE)
o
10.3Conflict
and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
o
10.4Greek
population in India
o
10.5Buddhist
missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)
o
10.6Subhagasena
and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
·
14Notes
Etymology
The name "Maurya" does not occur in Ashoka's
inscriptions, or the contemporary Greek accounts such as Megasthenes's Indica, but it is attested by the following
sources:[35]
·
The Junagadh rock inscription of
Rudradaman (c. 150 CE) prefixes "Maurya" to the
names Chandragupta and Ashoka.[35]
·
The Puranas (c.
4th century CE or earlier) use Maurya as a dynastic appellation.[35]
·
The Buddhist texts state that Chandragupta belonged to
the "Moriya" clan of the Shakyas, the tribe to which Gautama
Buddha belonged.[35]
·
The Jain texts state that Chandragupta was the son of a
royal superintendent of peacocks (mayura-poshaka).[35]
·
Tamil
Sangam literature also designate them as 'moriyar' and mention them
after the Nandas[36]
·
Kuntala inscription
(from the town of Bandanikke, North
Mysore ) of 12th century AD chronologically mention
Mauryya as one of the dynasties which ruled the region.[37]
According to some scholars, Kharavela's Hathigumpha inscription (2nd-1st
century BC) mentions era of Maurya Empire as Muriya Kala (Mauryan era),[38] but this reading is disputed: other scholars—such
as epigraphist D. C. Sircar—read the phrase as mukhiya-kala
("the principal art").[39]
According to the Buddhist tradition, the ancestors of the
Maurya kings had settled in a region where peacocks (mora in Pali) were
abundant. Therefore, they came to be known as "Moriyas", literally,
"belonging to the place of peacocks". According to another Buddhist
account, these ancestors built a city called Moriya-nagara
("Moriya-city"), which was so called, because it was built with the
"bricks coloured like peacocks' necks".[40]
The dynasty's connection to the peacocks, as mentioned in
the Buddhist and Jain traditions, seems to be corroborated by archaeological
evidence. For example, peacock figures are found on the Ashoka pillar at Nandangarh and several
sculptures on the Great Stupa of Sanchi. Based on
this evidence, modern scholars theorize that the peacock may have been the
dynasty's emblem.[41]
Some later authors, such as Dhundiraja (a commentator on
the Mudrarakshasa) and an annotator
of the Vishnu Purana, state that the
word "Maurya" is derived from Mura and the mother of the first Maurya
king. However, the Puranas themselves make no mention of Mura and do not talk
of any relation between the Nanda and the Maurya dynasties.[42] Dhundiraja's derivation of the word seems to be his
own invention: according to the Sanskrit rules, the derivative of the feminine
name Mura (IAST: Murā)
would be "Maureya"; the term "Maurya" can only be derived
from the masculine "Mura".[43]
History
Founding
See also: List of Mauryan rulers
Prior to the Maurya Empire, the Nanda
Empire ruled over most of the Indian Subcontinent. The
Nanda Empire was a large, militaristic, and economically powerful empire due to
conquering the Mahajanapadas. According to several legends,
Chanakya travelled to Pataliputra, Magadha, the
capital of the Nanda Empire where Chanakya worked for the
Nandas as a minister. However, Chanakya was insulted by the Emperor Dhana Nanda, of
the Nanda dynasty and Chanakya swore revenge and
vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.[44] He had to flee in order to save his life and went
to Taxila, a notable center of learning, to work as a teacher. On one of his
travels, Chanakya witnessed some young men playing a rural game practicing a
pitched battle. He was impressed by the young Chandragupta and saw royal
qualities in him as someone fit to rule.
Meanwhile, Alexander the Great was leading
his Indian campaigns and ventured into Punjab. His army mutinied at the Beas River and
refused to advance further eastward when confronted by another army. Alexander
returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of
the Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in
323 BCE, his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms led by his
generals.[45]
The Maurya Empire was established in the Greater
Punjab region under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya
and his mentor Chanakya. Chandragupta was taken to Taxila by
Chanakya and was tutored about statecraft and governing. Requiring an army
Chandragupta recruited and annexed local military
republics such as the Yaudheyas that
had resisted Alexanders Empire. The Mauryan army quickly rose to become the
prominent regional power in the North West of the Indian Subcontinent. The
Mauryan army then conquered the satraps established by the Macedonians.[46] Ancient Greek historians Nearchus, Onesictrius and
Aristobolus have provided lot of information about the Mauryan empire.[47] The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon ruled in the Indus Valley until around
317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now
his advisor) fought and drove out the Greek governors, and subsequently brought
the Indus Valley under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[26]
Chandragupta Maurya's ancestry is shrouded in mystery and
controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the
drama Mudrarakshasa (Signet
ring of Rakshasa – Rakshasa was the prime minister of
Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even
link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are
referred to in the earliest Buddhist
texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any
conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta
first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". As a young man he
is said to have met Alexander.[48] Chanakya is said to have met the Nanda king, angered
him, and made a narrow escape.[49]
Conquest of Magadha
Main
articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda
Dynasty, and Magadha
Territorial evolution of the Mauryan Empire
Territory
of Magadha and the Maurya Empire between 600 and 180 BCE,
including Chandragupta's overthrow of the Nanda Empire (321 BCE) and gains from
the Seleucid Empire (303 BCE), the
southward expansion (before 273 BCE), and Ashoka's conquest of Kalinga (261 BCE).[9]
The
same animation, modified in accordance with Kulke and Rothermund (see
text). Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka's empire did not include large parts of India,
which were controlled by autonomous tribes.[50]
Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take
over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta
gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over
the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana Nanda, plus the
resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men
included the former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the
representative of King Parvataka, his son Malayaketu, and the
rulers of small states. The Macedonians (described as Yona or
Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other
groups, in the armed uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda
dynasty.[51][52] The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta
as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk
of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvataka, often identified
with Porus,[53][54] although this identification is not accepted by all
historians.[55] This Himalayan alliance
gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Himalayans), Parasikas (Persians)
and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra (also
called Kusumapura, "The City of Flowers"):[56]
Kusumapura was besieged from every
direction by the forces of Parvata and Chandragupta: Shakas, Yavanas, Kiratas,
Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and others, assembled on the advice of Chanakya
Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya came up with a
strategy. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city
to a distant battlefield to engage with Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and
spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create
an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the
heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately
Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was
never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and
made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Nanda dynasty,
insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to
resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the
city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was
legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became
Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder
statesman.
Chandragupta Maurya
Main article: Chandragupta Maurya
Further
information: Seleucid–Mauryan war
Pataliputra, capital of the Mauryas. Ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site.
The Pataliputra capital, discovered at the Bulandi Bagh site of Pataliputra, 4th–3rd c. BCE.
After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE,
Chandragupta led a series of campaigns in 305 BCE to
take satrapies in the Indus Valley and northwest India.[58] When Alexander's remaining forces were routed, returning
westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. Not many
details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was defeated
and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan.[59]
The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BCE,
including a marital alliance. Under its terms, Chandragupta received the
satrapies of Paropamisadae (Kamboja and
Gandhara) and Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan). Seleucus
I received the 500 war
elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory
against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of
Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several
Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.[60]
Megasthenes in particular was a notable Greek ambassador
in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.[61] According to Arrian,
ambassador Megasthenes (c. 350 – c. 290 BCE) lived in
Arachosia and travelled to Pataliputra.[62] Megasthenes' description of Mauryan society as
freedom-loving gave Seleucus a means to avoid invasion, however, underlying
Seleucus' decision was the improbability of success. In later years, Seleucus'
successors maintained diplomatic relations with the Empire based on similar
accounts from returning travellers.[58]
Chandragupta established a strong centralised state with
an administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was
"surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570
towers". Aelian, although
not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentioning Pataliputra, described Indian
palaces as superior in splendor to Persia's Susa or Ecbatana.[63] The architecture of the city seems to have had many
similarities with Persian cities of the period.[64]
Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended
the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam
literature described how areas south of the Deccan
Plateau which comprised Tamil country was invaded by the
Maurya army using troops from Karnataka. Mamulanar states that Vadugar (people
who resided in Andhra-Karnataka regions immediately to the north of Tamil Nadu)
formed the vanguard of the Mauryan army.[36][65] He also had a Greek ambassador at his court,
named Deimachus.[66] According to Plutarch,
Chandragupta Maurya subdued all of India, and Justin also observed that
Chandragupta Maurya was "in possession of India". These accounts are
corroborated by Tamil sangam literature which mentions about Mauryan invasion
with their south Indian allies and defeat of their rivals at Podiyil hill
in Tirunelveli district in
present-day Tamil Nadu.[67][68]
Chandragupta renounced his throne and followed Jain
teacher Bhadrabahu.[69][70][71] He is said to have lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for
several years before fasting to death, as per the Jain practice of sallekhana.[72]
Bindusara
Main article: Bindusara
.jpg)
A silver coin of
1 karshapana of the Maurya empire,
period of Bindusara Maurya about 297–272 BC,
workshop of Pataliputra. Obv: Symbols with a sun. Rev: Symbol. Dimensions: 14
× 11 mm. Weight: 3.4 g.
Bindusara was born to Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire.
This is attested by several sources, including the various Puranas and
the Mahavamsa.[73][full citation needed] He is attested by the Buddhist texts such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa ("Bindusaro");
the Jain texts such as Parishishta-Parvan; as well as the Hindu
texts such as Vishnu Purana ("Vindusara").[74][75] According to the 12th century Jain writer Hemachandra's Parishishta-Parvan, the name
of Bindusara's mother was Durdhara.[76] Some Greek sources also mention him by the name
"Amitrochates" or its variations.[77][78]
Historian Upinder Singh estimates that Bindusara ascended
the throne around 297 BCE.[65] Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a
large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts
of India along
with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to
the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka. He
brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all
of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two
seas' – the peninsular region between the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea).
Bindusara did not conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms
of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart
from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that
did not form part of Bindusara's empire.[79] It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who
served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during
his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the town.[80][81]
Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that
of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as
prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar
Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the
nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of
the territory between the eastern and western oceans".[82] During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted
twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima, his
eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could
not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's
death.[83]
Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with
the Hellenic world. Deimachus was
the ambassador of Seleucid emperor Antiochus I at
Bindusara's court.[84] Diodorus states
that the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra, the
Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author, Iambulus. This king
is usually identified as Bindusara.[84] Pliny states
that the Egyptian king Philadelphus sent an envoy named Dionysius to India.[85][86] According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this appears to
have happened during Bindusara's reign.[84]
Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage
converted to Jainism), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect.
Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin[87] of the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (Queen
Dharma/ Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin[88] also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present
Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to
Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).[89]
Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the
270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around 273 BCE.[65] Alain
Daniélou believes that he died around 274 BCE.[82] Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around
273–272 BCE, and that his death was followed by a four-year struggle of
succession, after which his son Ashoka became
the emperor in 269–268 BCE.[84] According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara
reigned for 28 years.[90] The Vayu Purana, which
names Chandragupta's successor as "Bhadrasara", states that he ruled
for 25 years.[91]
Ashoka
Main article: Ashoka
Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath. c. 250 BCE.
Ashoka pillar
at Vaishali.
Fragment of the 6th
Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstone, British Museum.
As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272–232 BCE) was
a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Takshashila. As monarch
he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in
southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262–261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal
event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project power over a large region by
building a fortification there and securing it as a possession.[92] Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming
Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000
soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over
10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely
affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed
the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of
Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced
war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread
Buddhism to other countries.[citation needed]
Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by
banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced
labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into
hard labour and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to
keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with
states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook
a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years
of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and
famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of
inspiration in modern India.[citation needed]
The Edicts of
Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent.
Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore
District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and
accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were
written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's
edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as
peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's
having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean.
The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world
at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's
proselytism.[citation needed] The Edicts also accurately locate their territory
"600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles),
corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly
4,000 miles).[93]
Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of
weaker kings. He was succeeded by Dasharatha
Maurya, who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could
ascend the throne after him. Mahendra, his first born, was on to spread
Buddhism in the world. Kunala Maurya was
blind hence couldn't ascend the throne and Tivala, son of Kaurwaki, died even
earlier than Ashoka. Another son, Jalauka, does not have much story behind him.
The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha, which
were later reconquered by Samprati, Kunala's
son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE, Brihadratha Maurya, was killed by his
general Pushyamitra Shunga in a military
parade without any heir. Hence, the great Maurya empire finally ended, giving
rise to the Shunga Empire.
Reasons advanced for the decline include the succession
of weak kings after Aśoka Maurya, the partition of the empire into two, the
growing independence of some areas within the empire, such as that ruled
by Sophagasenus, a top-heavy administration where
authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons, an absence of any
national consciousness,[94] the pure scale of the empire making it unwieldy,
and invasion by the Greco-Bactrian Empire.
Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that
Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya
empire. Others, such as Romila
Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his
pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".[95]
Shunga coup
(185 BCE)
Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write
that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga empire led to
a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists,[96] and a resurgence of Hinduism. According
to Sir John Marshall,[97] Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the
persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of
Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne
Lamotte[98] and Romila
Thapar,[99] among others, have argued that archaeological
evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking,
and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
Establishment of
the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom
The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded,
and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he
conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around
180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks
would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central
India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their
kings, Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish
a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However,
the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much
debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the
subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their
successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes,
renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the
Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the
region of Mathura, and Gujarat.[citation needed]
Military
Megasthenes mentions military command consisting of six
boards of five members each, (i) Navy (ii)
military transport (iii) Infantry (iv) Cavalry with Catapults (v) Chariot divisions and (vi) Elephants.[100]
Administration
Statuettes of the
Mauryan era
The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the
imperial capital at Pataliputra. From
Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in
the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in
the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial
administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the
provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by
Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was
reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council
of Ministers).[citation needed]. The mauryans established a well developed coin minting
system. Coins were mostly made of silver and copper. Certain gold coins were in
circulation as well. The coins were widely used for trade and commerce[101]
Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire
was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in
the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service
governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The
expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have
been one of the largest armies in the world during the Iron Age.[102] According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a
military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war
elephants besides followers and attendants.[103] A vast espionage system
collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having
renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to
maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instil stability and peace
across West and South Asia.[citation needed].Even though large parts were under the control of
Mauryan empire the spread of information and imperial message was limited since
many parts were inaccessible and were situated far away from capital of empire.[104]
Local government
Arthashastra and Megasthenes accounts
of Pataliputra describe the intricate municipal
system formed by Maurya empire to govern its cities. A city counsel made up of
thirty commissioners was divided into six committees or boards which governed
the city. The first board fixed wages and looked after provided goods, second
board made arrangement for foreign dignitaries, tourists and businessmen, third
board made records and registrations, fourth looked after manufactured goods
and sale of commodities, fifth board regulated trade, issued licenses and
checked weights and measurements, sixth board collected sales taxes. Some
cities such as Taxila had autonomy to issue their own coins. The city counsel
had officers who looked after public welfare such as maintenance of roads,
public buildings, markets, hospitals, educational institutions etc.[105] The official head of the village was Gramika (in
towns Nagarika).[106] The city counsel also had some magisterial powers.
Economy
See also: Economic history of India and Coinage of
India
Maurya statuette,
2nd century BCE.
For the first time in South Asia, political
unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced
trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous
situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional
chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central
authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional
kings, paying instead to a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system
of taxation as advised by the principles in the Arthashastra.
Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network
of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice
and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out
many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who
sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in
revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to
enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to
new-found political unity and internal peace.[citation needed]
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during
Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the
modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important
port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic
kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also
extended through the Malay
peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk
goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came across new
scientific knowledge and technology with expanding trade with the Mauryan
Empire. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads,
waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of
many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation
and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across
the Empire.[citation needed]
In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan
Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had
extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While
Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public
state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities.
These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan
Empire itself.[107]
|
Maurya Empire coinage |
|
·
Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins. ·
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya
empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.[citation
needed] ·
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on
reverse.[citation
needed] ·
Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd
century BCE.[citation
needed] ·
Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207-194
BCE.[108] |
Religion
In the early period of empire Brahmanism was
an important religion.[109] The Mauryans favored Brahmanism as well as Jainism
and Buddhism. Minor religious sects such as ajivikas also received patronage.
Jainism
Bhadrabahu
Cave, Shravanabelagola where Chandragupta is said to have died
Chandragupta Maurya followed Jainism after
retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to join a
wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of the Jain
monk Acharya
Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous
but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara (fast
unto death), at Shravana
Belgola in Karnataka.[110][71][111][70] Samprati, the
grandson of Ashoka, also patronized Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the
teachings of Jain monks like Suhastin and he is said to have built 125,000 derasars across
India.[112] Some of them are still found in the towns of
Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana.[citation needed] It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati
sent messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and
the Middle East for the spread of Jainism, but,
to date, no research has been done in this area.[113][114]
Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan
Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Hundreds
of thousands of temples and stupas are said to have been erected during their
reigns
Buddhism
The stupa, which contained the relics of
Buddha, at the center of the Sanchi complex
was originally built by the Maurya Empire, but the balustrade around it
is Sunga, and the decorative gateways
are from the later Satavahana period.
The Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila, modern Pakistan, is also thought to have been
established by Emperor Asoka.
Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of
Buddhism. Ashoka initially practised Brahmanism[citation needed] but later followed Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he
renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the
use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and
against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose
king Tissa was so
charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the
state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East
Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as
the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to
have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, such as Sanchi and Mahabodhi
Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in
Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia. Ashoka
helped convene the Third
Buddhist Council of India's and South Asia's Buddhist orders near
his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the
Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role
in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire.[115]
Society
The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period
has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million.[31] According to Tim Dyson, the period of the Mauryan
Empire saw the consolidation of caste among the Indo-Aryan
people who had settled in the Gangetic plain, increasingly
meeting tribal people who were incorporated into their eveolving caste-system,
and the declining rights of women in the Indo-Aryan speaking regions of
India, though "these developments did not affect people living in large
parts of the subcontinent."[32]
Architectural remains
Main
articles: Edicts of
Ashoka, Sanchi
Stupa, and Mauryan art
Mauryan architecture
in the Barabar Caves. Lomas Rishi Cave. 3rd century BCE.
The greatest monument of this period, executed in the
reign of Chandragupta Maurya, was the old
palace at Paliputra, modern Kumhrar in Patna.
Excavations have unearthed the remains of the palace, which is thought to have
been an group of several buildings, the most important of which was an immense
pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set
in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays.
The number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the
eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the
palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in
splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars
being adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an
extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of
ornamental trees and shrubs.[116][better source needed] Kauṭilya's Arthashastra also
gives the method of palace construction from this period. Later fragments of
stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts
and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of
the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.[citation needed]
An early stupa, 6 meters in diameter, with
fallen umbrella on side. Chakpat, near Chakdara. Probably Maurya, 3rd century BCE.
During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly
diversified order and comprised lofty free-standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion
thrones and other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great
perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a
high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning
of the Buddhist school of architecture. Ashoka was responsible for the
construction of several stupas, which
were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are
located at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Bodhgaya and Nagarjunakonda. The most
widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka
pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely
decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.[117][better source needed]
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as
depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.[41]
|
Maurya structures and decorations at Sanchi |
|
|
|
·
Remains of the Ashokan Pillar in
polished stone (right of the Southern Gateway). ·
Remains of the shaft of the pillar of
Ashoka, under a shed near the Southern Gateway. ·
Pillar and its inscription (the
"Schism Edict") upon discovery. ·
The capital nowadays.[118] |
Natural history
The two Yakshas, possibly 3rd century BCE,
found in Pataliputra. The two Brahmi inscriptions starting
with 
... (Yakhe... for
"Yaksha...") are paleographically of a later date, circa 2nd century
CE Kushan.[119]
The protection of animals in India was advocated by the
time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified
political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their
denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.[120]
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For
them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in
those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these
played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former generals. The Mauryas sought
to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to
catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains
not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the
responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant
Forests.[121]
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest
for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forester
should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain. The
slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.
The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect
supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins. Elsewhere the Protector
of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other
predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.[citation needed]
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or
economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They
regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and
political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to
guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden
relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[122]
When Ashoka embraced
Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes
in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and
even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history[failed verification] to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even
had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the
king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly
states:[122]
Our king killed very few animals.
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers
than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer
in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal
restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common
people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[122]
Contacts with the Hellenistic world
Mauryan ringstone,
with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd Century BCE
Foundation of the Empire
Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started
from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports
that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably
around Taxila in
the northwest:[123]
Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander
himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander
narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated
and despised on account of his baseness and low birth.
Reconquest of the Northwest (c.
317–316 BCE)
Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in
the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps
(described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after
Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in
the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the
Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in
316 BCE.[citation needed]
India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his
prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation
was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory,
since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has
liberated from foreign domination.
— Justin XV.4.12–13[125]
Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of
Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if
tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired
royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing
future glory.
— Justin XV.4.19[126]
Conflict and alliance with Seleucus
(305 BCE)
Main article: Seleucid–Mauryan war
A map showing the
north western border of Maurya Empire, including its various neighboring
states.
Seleucus I Nicator, the
Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire,
conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria
and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until
in 305 BCE he entered into a confrontation with Emperor Chandragupta:
Always lying in wait for the neighbouring nations, strong
in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia,
'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia,
Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by
Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were
the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from
Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.
— Appian, History
of Rome, "The Syrian Wars" 55[127]
Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear
that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer
any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his.
Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and
through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a
number of territories to Chandragupta, including eastern Afghanistan and Balochistan.[citation needed]
Marriage alliance
Chandragupta and Seleucus concluded a peace treaty and a marriage alliance in
303 BCE. Chandragupta received vast territories and in a return gave Seleucus
500 war elephants,[128][129][130][131][132] a military asset which would play a decisive role
at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.[133] In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an
ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to
his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar).
Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler
of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also
recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador
named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[134][better source needed]
Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received
vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush,
modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[135][136] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan
rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of
Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in
southern Afghanistan.
He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with
Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that
stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a
marriage relationship.
— Appian, History
of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55
After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put
in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus.
— Junianus
Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, libri XLIV, XV.4.15
The treaty on "Epigamia"
implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State
level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or
common people, or both.[citation needed]
Exchange of
presents
Classical sources have also recorded that following their
treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta
sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:[77]
And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of
wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus
confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king
of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a
wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish
love.
— Athenaeus of Naucratis, The deipnosophists, Book I, chapter
32[137]
His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata'
(Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged
presents with Antiochus I:[77]
But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men
(for really, as Aristophanes says, "There's really
nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the
Indians, wrote to Antiochus,
entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and
send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that
Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will
send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece.
— Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae XIV.67[138]
Greek population in India
The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum. (See image
description page for translation.)
An influential and large Greek population was present in
the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule, possibly remnants
of Alexander's conquests in the Indus Valley region. In the Rock Edicts
of Ashoka, some of them inscribed in Greek, Ashoka states that the
Greeks within his dominion were converted to Buddhism:
Here in the king's dominion among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the
Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and
the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions
in Dharma.
Now, in times past (officers) called Mahamatras of
morality did not exist before. Mahdmatras of morality were appointed by me
(when I had been) anointed thirteen years. These are occupied with all sects in
establishing morality, in promoting morality, and for the welfare and happiness
of those who are devoted to morality (even) among the Greeks, Kambojas and Gandharas, and
whatever other western borderers (of mine there are).
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a
full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is
said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated
philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as
the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of
his other Edicts written in Prakrit:[non-primary source
needed]
Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King
Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men;
and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives
throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings,
and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have
desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from
their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and
mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so
acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.
— Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [1][unreliable source?]
Buddhist missions to the West (c.
250 BCE)
·
The distribution of
the Edicts of Ashoka.[139]
·
Map of the Buddhist
missions during the reign of Ashoka.
·
Territories
"conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No. 13 of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[140][141]
Also, in the Edicts of
Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as
recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record
of this event remains:
The conquest by Dharma has
been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km)
away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south
among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as
far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).
— Edicts of
Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika.[non-primary source
needed]
Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal
medicine, for men and animals, in their territories:
Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's
[Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and
where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who
are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans
and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans
or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever
medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown.
Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans
and animals.
— 2nd Rock
Edict[non-primary source
needed]
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active
role in the spread of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such
as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources
as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism
(the Mahavamsa, XII[142][non-primary source
needed]).
Subhagasena and Antiochos III
(206 BCE)
Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler
of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named
Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit. His name
is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes,[citation needed] and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a
descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son
of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly
in Gandhara. Antiochos
III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to
India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the
Indian king there:
He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into
India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians;
received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and
having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his
army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure
which this king had agreed to hand over to him.
— Polybius
11.39[non-primary source
needed]
The Shunga
The Shunga
Empire (IAST: Śuṅga) was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 184 to 75 BCE. The dynasty was established
by Pushyamitra
Shunga, after taking the throne of the Maurya Empire. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar (modern Vidisha) in eastern Malwa.[1]
Pushyamitra
Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of
Agnimitra, the second king of the dynasty, the empire rapidly disintegrated:[2] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central
India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any
Shunga hegemony.[3] The dynasty is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign
and indigenous powers. They fought the Kalinga,
the Satavahana
dynasty, the Indo-Greek
Kingdom and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras
of Mathura.
Art,
education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period
including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural
monuments such as the stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal
sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant
of Brahmi script and was used to write Sanskrit.
The Shunga
Empire played an imperative role in patronising culture at a time when some of
the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya was composed in this period. Artistry also progressed with
the rise of the Mathura art style.
The last
of the Shunga emperors was Devabhuti (83–73 BCE). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been overfond of the company of women. The
Shunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas. The Kanva dynasty succeeded the Shungas around 73 BCE.
Contents
·
1Origins
o
2.2Accounts
against persecution
o
2.3Shunga
period contributions in Sanchi
§ 2.3.2Stupa
No2 and Stupa No3
o
3.2Military
expeditions of the Shungas
o
3.3War
with the Yavanas (Greeks)
o
3.4Battle
on the Sindhu river
o
3.5Epigraphic
and archaeological evidence
§ 3.5.1Dhanadeva-Ayodhya
inscription
§ 3.5.2Yavanarajya
inscription
·
4Decline
·
5Art
·
6Script
·
9Notes
Origins[edit]
Man on a relief, Bharhut, Shunga period.
Shunga royal family, West Bengal, 1st century BCE.
The Shunga
dynasty was a Brahmin dynasty,[4] established in 184 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the emperor Brihadratha
Maurya, the last ruler of the Maurya Empire, was assassinated by his Senānī or commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra
Shunga,[5] while he was reviewing the Guard of Honour of his forces.
Pushyamitra Shunga then ascended the throne.[6]
Pushyamitra
Shunga became the ruler of Magadha and neighbouring territories. His realm essentially covered
the central parts of the old Mauryan
Empire.[7] The Shunga definitely had control of the central city
of Ayodhya in northern central India, as is proved by the Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription.[7] However, the city of Mathura further west never seems to have been under the direct
control of the Shungas, as no archaeological evidence of a Shunga presence has
ever been found in Mathura.[8] On the contrary, according to the Yavanarajya
inscription, Mathura was probably under the control
of Indo-Greeks from some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so
as late as 70 BCE.[8]
Some
ancient sources however claim a greater extent for the Shunga Empire: the Asokavadana account of the Divyavadana claims that the Shungas sent an army to persecute Buddhist
monks as far as Sakala (Sialkot) in the Punjab region in the northwest:
... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy
the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama (in Pataliputra). ... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed. ... After some time, he
arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a ... reward to whoever brought
him the head of a Buddhist monk.[9]:293
Also,
the Malavikagnimitra claims that the empire of Pushyamitra extended to the Narmada River in the south. They may also have controlled the city of Ujjain.[7] Meanwhile, Kabul and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan
Plateau to the Satavahana
dynasty.
Pushyamitra
died after ruling for 36 years (187–151 BCE). He was succeeded by son Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's
greatest playwrights, Kālidāsa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes place.
The power
of the Shungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Shunga
emperors. The Shungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 BCE.
Buddhism[edit]
Main article: Pushyamitra Shunga
See also: Decline of Buddhism in India
Accounts of
persecution[edit]
Shunga horseman, Bharhut.
Following
the Mauryans, the first Brahmin emperor was Pushyamitra Shunga, and is believed
by some historians to have persecuted Buddhists and contributed to a resurgence
of Brahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.[10] Buddhist scripture such as the Asokavadana account of the Divyavadana and ancient Tibetan historian Taranatha have written about persecution of Buddhists. Pushyamitra is
said to have burned down Buddhist monasteries, destroyed stupas, massacred
Buddhist monks and put rewards on their heads, but some consider these stories
as probable exaggerations.[10][11]
"... Pushyamitra
equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he
went to the Kukkutarama. ... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama,
killed the monks there, and departed. ... After some time, he arrived in
Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a ... reward to whoever brought him
the head of a Buddhist monk."
— Asokavadana account of the Divyavadana[12]:293
Indian Puranic sources also, such as the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya
Purana, describe the resurgence of Brahmanism
following the Maurya Dynasty, and the killing of millions of Buddhists:
"At this time
(after the rule of Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka) the best of the brahmanas, Kanyakubja, performed sacrifice on the top of a mountain named
Arbuda. By the influence of Vedic mantras, four Kshatriyas appeared from the yajna (sacrifice). (...) They kept Ashoka under their control and
annihilated all the Buddhists. It is said there were 4 million Buddhists and
all of them were killed by uncommon weapons".
Pushyamitra
is known to have revived the supremacy of the Bramahnical religion and reestablished animal sacrifices (Yajnas) that had been prohibited by Ashoka.[11]
Accounts against
persecution[edit]
.JPG)
Shunga period stupa at Sanchi.
East Gateway and Railings, Red
Sandstone, Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BCE. Indian
Museum, Kolkata.
Later
Shunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to
the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[14] During his reign the buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved. There is enough evidence
to show that Pushyamitra patronised buddhist art.[15] However, given the rather decentralised and fragmentary
nature of the Shunga state, with many cities actually issuing their own
coinage, as well as the relative dislike of the Shungas for the Buddhist
religion, some authors argue that the constructions of that period in Sanchi
for example cannot really be called "Shunga". They were not the
result of royal sponsorship, in contrast with what happened during the Mauryas,
and most of the dedications at Sanchi were private or collective, rather than
the result of royal patronage.[16]
Some
writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with
Buddhism[10] in the Gangetic
plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of
the Bactrian kings.[citation needed]
Some
Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Shunga emperors were not
intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the
Shunga emperors. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Shunga period can
also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh Museum in
Kolkata.
Royal dedications[edit]
Two
dedication by a king Brahmamitra and a king Indragnimitra are recorded at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, and have been claimed to show Sunga support for Buddhism. These
kings however are essentially unknown, and do not form a part of the Shunga
recorded genealogy, but they are thought to be post-Ashokan and to belong to the period of Sunga rule.[17][18] A Brahmamitra is known otherwise as a local ruler of Mathura, but Indragnimitra is unknown, and according to some authors,
Indragnimitra is in fact not even mentioned as a king in the actual
inscription.[18][19]
·
An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows:
"The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra."
·
Another inscription reads:
"The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the
wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal
palace shrine.[20][21] "
Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important
records. As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven
Brahmi letters after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of
which read "rajapasada-cetika sa". Bloch reads these nine
letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates this
expression in relation to the preceding words:
"(the gift of
Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and the mother of living sons), "to the
caitya (cetika) of the noble temple", taking the word raja before pasada
as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the temple as a particularly large and
stately building similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble elephant',
rajahamsa `a goose (as distinguished from hamsa 'a duck'), etc."
Cunningham
has translated the expression by "the royal palace, the caitya",
suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would seem to connect the
donor with the king's family." Luders doubtfully suggests "to the
king's temple" as a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa."
Shunga period
contributions in Sanchi[edit]
Main article: Sanchi
The Great Stupa under the Shungas. The
Shungas nearly doubled the diameter of the initial stupa, encasing it in stone,
and built a balustrade and a railing around it.
On the
basis of Ashokavadana, it is presumed that the stupa may have been vandalised at one
point sometime in the 2nd century BCE, an event some have related to the rise
of the Shunga emperor Pushyamitra Shunga who overtook the Mauryan Empire as an
army general. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the
original stupa, and his son Agnimitra rebuilt it.[22] The original brick stupa was covered with stone during the
Shunga period.
Great Stupa (No 1)[edit]
During the
later rule of the Shunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost
twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by
three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was
a symbol of the dharma, the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum
meant for circumambulation, which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone
pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade. The railing around
Stupa 1 do not have artistic reliefs. These are only slabs, with some
dedicatory inscriptions. These elements are dated to circa 150 BCE.[23]
Stupa No2 and Stupa No3[edit]
The
buildings which seem to have been commissioned during the rule of the Shungas
are the Second and Third stupas (but not the highly decorated gateways, which are from the
following Satavahana period, as known from inscriptions), and the ground balustrade
and stone casing of the Great Stupa (Stupa No 1). The Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana are said to have been placed in Stupa No 3.[24] These are dated to circa 115 BCE for the medallions, 80 BCE
for the gateway carvings,[25] slightly after the reliefs of Bharhut, with some reworks down to the 1st century CE.[23][25]
The style
of the Shunga period decorations at Sanchi bear a close similarity to those
of Bharhut, as well as the peripheral balustrades at Bodh Gaya, which are thought to be the oldest of the three.
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