Satavahana
dynasty
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Satavahana Empire |
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Late 2nd century
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The Satavahanas (Sādavāhana or Sātavāhana,[5] IAST: Sātavāhana), also referred to
as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an
ancient Indian dynasty based
in the Deccan region. Most modern scholars believe that the
Satavahana rule began in the late second century BCE and lasted until the early
third century CE, although some assign the beginning of their rule to as early
as the 3rd century BCE based on the Puranas, but
uncorroborated by archaeological evidence.[6] The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the
present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra. At
different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, and Karnataka. The
dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan)
and Amaravati (Dharanikota).
The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to
the Puranas, their
first king overthrew the Kanva
dynasty. In the post-Maurya era,
the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region, and resisted the
onslaught of foreign invaders. In particular their struggles with the Saka Western
Satraps went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its
zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his
successor Vasisthiputra Pulamavi. The kingdom
fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE.
The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck
with images of their rulers. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital
role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern
tip of India. They supported Hinduism as
well as Buddhism, and patronised Prakrit literature.
Contents
·
1Origins
·
2History
o
2.3First
Western Satraps invasion under Nahapana
o
2.5Second
Western Satraps invasion under Rudradaman I
·
5Economy
·
9Coinage
Origins
The date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well
as the meaning of the dynasty's name, are a matter of debate among the
historians. Some of these debates have happened in the context of regionalism, with the present-day Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana being
variously claimed as the original homeland of the Satavahanas.[7]
Etymology
Early coin of Satakarni I (70-60 BCE). Obverse legend:
(𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺) 𑀲𑀸
𑀡𑀺(𑀲), (Siri) Sātakaṇi(sa).[8]
According to one theory, the word "Satavahana"
(Brahmi script: 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sādavāhana or 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sātavāhana,[5] IAST: Sātavāhana) is a Prakrit form
of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana ("driven by seven";
in Hindu mythology, the chariot of the sun god is
drawn by seven horses). This would indicate that the Satavahanas originally
claimed association with the legendary solar
dynasty, as was common in ancient India.[9] According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the dynasty's
name is derived from the words sata ("sharpened",
"nimble" or "swift") and vahana ("vehicle");
the expression thus means "one who rides a nimble horse".[10]
Another theory connects their name to the earlier
Satiyaputa dynasty. Yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam ("horse")
and Harpan ("son"), implying "son of the
performer of a horse sacrifice".[11] Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or
title "Satakarni". Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and Shalivahana appear
to be variations of the same word. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorised
that the word "Satakarni" is derived from the Munda words sada ("horse")
and kon ("son").[12]
The Puranas use
the name "Andhra" for the Satavahanas. The term "Andhra"
may refer to ethnicity or territory of the dynasty (see Original
homeland below). It does not appear in the dynasty's own
records.[13]
Tamil epic Silappatikaram mentions
a "Nurruvar Kannar", who helped Chera king Senguttuvan during
his Himalaya campaign. The direct translation of the term Nurruvar Kannar is
"the hundred Karnas" or "Satakarni", hence the Nurruvar
Kannar has been identified with the Satavahana dynasty.[14][15][16]
Original homeland
Early sculpture
from Pauni, ancient Vidarbha, where coins of Satakarni were also found.[17][18] Pillar with Naga Mucalinda protecting
the throne of the Buddha at Pauni (Bhandara
District). 2nd-1st century BCE. National Museum of India.[19]
The use of the names "Andhra" and
"Andhra-Jatiya" in the Puranas has led some scholars, such as E.J Rapson and R.G
Bhandarkar, to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern
Deccan region (the historic Andhra region, present-day Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana).[20][21] At Kotilingala in
Telangana, coins bearing the legend "Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa"
were found.[22] Epigraphist and numismastist P. V. P. Sastry
initially identified Chimuka with the dynasty's founder Simuka,[23] Coins attributed to Simuka's successors Kanha and Satakarni I were
also discovered at Kotilingla.[24] Based on these discoveries, historians such as Ajay
Mitra Shastri, D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy and Shankar R. Goyal theorised that
Kotlingala was the original home of the Satavahanas. Ajay Mitra Shastri stated that
the finding of the coins at Kotilinga give "a clear pointer to the region
where we have to locate the original center of the Satavahana political
authority."[25] However, the coin samples from Kotlingala are
small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there
from somewhere else.[26] Moreover, the identification of Chimuka of
Kotilingala with the dynasty's founder Simuka has been contested by several
scholars including P. L. Gupta and I. K. Sarma, who
identified Chimuka as a later ruler.[27][28] P.V.P. Sastry also later changed his view, and
stated that the two kings were different.[23] In addition to the Kotilinga find, a coin of the
Satavahana prince Saktikumara, who was in the fourth generation of the founder,
has been reported as a stratified find from the Kurnool
district of Andhra Pradesh.[25] As for the Puranas, these texts could have been
compiled at a later date and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred
to as Andhras during their time.[28][29]
Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas
originated in western Deccan (present-day Maharashtra).[20] All four extant inscriptions from the early
Satavahana period (c. 1st century BCE) have been found in and around this
region. One of the earliest known Satavahana inscriptions was that found
at Cave No.19 of the Pandavleni
Caves in Nashik district, which was issued during the reign of
Kanha (100-70 BCE).[30] An inscription found at Naneghat was
issued by Nayanika (or Naganika), the widow of Satakarni I; another
inscription found at Naneghat has been dated to the same period on a
paleographic basis. A slightly later inscription dated to the reign of
Satakarni II has been found at Sanchi in Madhya
Pradesh, located to the north of Maharashtra.[7] The majority of the other Satavahana inscriptions
have also been found in western Deccan.[26] On the other hand, the epigraphic evidence from
eastern Deccan does not mention the Satavahanas before the 4th century CE.[28] At Nevasa, a seal
and coins attributed to Kanha have been discovered.[31] Coins attributed to Satakarni I have also been
discovered at Nashik, Nevasa and Pauni in
Maharashtra (besides places in eastern Deccan and present-day Madhya Pradesh).[22] Based on this evidence, some historians argue that
the Satavahanas initially came to power in the area around their capital Pratishthana (modern
Paithan, Maharashtra) and then expanded their territory to eastern Deccan.[32] Carla Sinopoli cautions that the inference about
the western Deccan origin of the Satavahanas is "tentative at best"
given the small sample of early inscriptions.[33]
Inscription of king Kanha (100-70 BCE)
Cave
No.19 of Satavahana king Kanha at the Nasik Caves, 1st century BCE.
Inscription
of king Kanha in cave No.19, Nasik Caves. This is one of the oldest known
Satavahana inscription, circa 100-70 BCE.[7] Brahmi script:
𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀓𑀼𑀮𑁂
𑀓𑀦𑁆𑀳𑁂𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀺𑀦𑀺
𑀦𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀦
𑀲𑀫𑀡𑁂𑀦
𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀫𑀸𑀢𑁂𑀡 𑀮𑁂𑀡
𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀢
Sādavāhanakule Kanhe rājini Nāsikakena Samaṇena mahāmāteṇa leṇa kārita
"Under King Kanha of the Satavahana family this cave has been caused to be
made by the officer in charge of the Sramanas at Nasik".[5]
Naneghat inscription. Dated to
70-60 BCE, in the reign of Satakarni I.[7]
Kanha's Pandavleni mentions the term maha-matra (officer-in-charge),
which indicates that the early Satavahanas followed the Mauryan administrative
model.[34] C. Margabandhu theorised that the Satavahanas were
called Andhras because they were natives of eastern Deccan (the Andhra region),
although they first established their empire in western Deccan after having
served as Mauryan subordinates. Himanshu Prabha Ray (1986) opposes this theory,
stating that the Andhra was originally an ethnic term, and did not come to
denote the geographical region of eastern Deccan until well after the
Satavahana period.[7] According to Vidya
Dehejia, the writers of the Puranas (which could have been
written after the Satavahana period) mistook the Satavahana presence in eastern
Deccan as evidence for their origin in that region, and wrongly labelled them
as "Andhra".[35]
Some scholars also suggest that the dynasty originated in
present-day Karnataka, and initially owed allegiance to some Andhra rulers.[36] A Satavahana inscription found on a slab of the
upper drum (medhi) of the Kanaganahalli mahastupa
mentions year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which can be
dated from ca. 110 BCE.[37][38][39] V. S. Sukthankar theorised
that the territorial division Satavahani-Satahani (Satavahanihara or
Satahani-rattha), in present-day Bellary
district, was the homeland of the Satavahana family.[40] However, Dr. Gopalchari challenged Sukthankar's
theory by pointing out that not a single inscription of the early Satavahanas
is found in Bellary District and that the only Satavahana inscription in
Bellary District was that of Pulumavi, who belongs to the later-phase of
Satavahana history.[41] A stupa in Kanaganahalli village
of Karnataka, dated between the first century BCE and first century CE,
features limestone panels depicting portraits of Chimuka (Simuka), Satakani
(Satakarni) and other Satavahana rulers.[42]
History
Information about the Satavahanas comes from the Puranas, some
Buddhist and Jain texts, the dynasty's inscriptions and coins, and foreign
(Greek and Roman) accounts that focus on trade.[43] The information provided by these sources is not
sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty's history with absolute certainty. As a
result, there are multiple theories about the Satavahana chronology.[44]
Foundation
Simuka is mentioned as the first king in a list of royals
in a Satavahana inscription at Naneghat. The
various Puranas state that the first king of the dynasty ruled for
23 years, and mention his name variously as Sishuka, Sindhuka, Chhismaka,
Shipraka, etc. These are believed to be corrupted spellings of Simuka,
resulting from copying and re-copying of manuscripts.[45] Simuka cannot be dated with certainty based on
available evidence. Based on the following theories, the beginning of the
Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE.[46] According to the Puranas, the first Andhra king
overthrew the Kanva rule. He is named as Balipuccha in some texts.[47] D. C. Sircar dated this event to c. 30 BCE, a
theory supported by many other scholars.[44]
The Matsya Purana mentions that the
Andhra dynasty ruled for around 450 years. As the Satavahana rule ended in the
early 3rd century, the beginning of their rule can be dated to the 3rd century
BCE. The Indica of Megasthenes (350
– 290 BCE) mentions a powerful tribe named "Andarae", whose king
maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. If
Andarae is identified with the Andhras, this can be considered additional
evidence of Satavahana rule starting in the 3rd century BCE. The Brahmanda
Purana states that "the four Kanvas will rule the
earth for 45 years; then (it) will again go
to the Andhras". Based on this statement, the proponents of this theory
argue that the Satavahana rule began immediately after the Maurya rule,
followed by a Kanva interregnum, and then,
a revival of the Satavahana rule. According to one version of the theory Simuka
succeeded the Mauryans. A variation of the theory is that Simuka was the person
who restored the Satavahana rule by overthrowing the Kanvas; the compiler of
the Puranas confused him with the founder of the dynasty.[34]
Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana ruler
began in the first century BCE and lasted until the second century CE. This
theory is based on Puranic records as well as archaeological and numismatic
evidence. The theory that dates their rule to an earlier period is now largely
discredited because the various Puranas contradict each other, and are not
fully supported by epigraphic or numismatic evidence.[13]
The oldest Satavahana inscription is the one found on a
slab of the upper drum (medhi) of the Kanaganahalli Great
Stupa mentioning year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which
can be dated from ca. 110 BCE.[37][38][39][48]
𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀸 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀲 𑀲𑁄𑀟𑁂 𑀯𑀙𑀭𑁂 𑁛𑁗 𑀫𑀸𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁂𑀓
Rano siri chimu(ka) sātavāhanasa soḍe 10 6 mātiseka
"In the year sixteen 16 of King Siri Chimuka
Slilaviihana"
— Kanaganahalli inscription of the 16th
year of Simuka.[49]
On another stone slab at Kanaganahalli, the king is
possibly shown together with a Nagaraja, and the
inscription reads:
𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀸 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓𑁄 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑁄 𑀦𑀸𑀕𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀲𑀔𑀥𑀸𑀪𑁄
Rājā Siri Chimuko Sādavāhano nāgarāya Sakhadhābho
"Lord King Simuka the Satavahana, Nagaraja Sakhadhābho"
— Kanaganahalli inscription of Simuka.[50]
Early expansion
Sanchi donations (50 BCE- 0 CE)
The
southern gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi was, according to an inscription (see arrow), donated under the rule
of "King Satakarni", probably Satakarni II.[52]
The
inscription appears on the relief of a stupa at the center of the top architrave,
at the rear. It is written in three lines in early Brahmi script over the dome of the stupa in
this relief.[51] Dated circa 50 BCE- 0 CE.
Text
of the inscription:
𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄
𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀓𑀡𑀺𑀲 / 𑀆𑀯𑁂𑀲𑀡𑀺𑀲 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀻𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 / 𑀆𑀦𑀁𑀤𑀲 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁
Rāño Siri Sātakaṇisa / āvesaṇisa vāsitḥīputasa / Ānaṁdasa
dānaṁ
"Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni"[51]
Simuka was succeeded by his brother Kanha (also known as Krishna), who extended the kingdom
up to Nashik in the west.[53][34] His successor Satakarni I conquered
western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley)
and Vidarbha, taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India. He performed Vedic
sacrifices including Ashvamedha and Rajasuya. Instead
of the Buddhists, he patronised Brahmins and donated a substantial amount of wealth
to them.[11] The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga king Kharavela mentions
a king named "Satakani" or "Satakamini", who some[54] identify with Satakarni I. The inscription
describes dispatching of an army and Kharavela's threat to a city. Since the
inscription is only partially legible, different scholars interpret the events
described in the inscription differently. According to R. D. Banerji and
Sailendra Nath Sen, Kharavela sent out an army against Satakarni.[55] According to Bhagwal Lal, Satakarni wanted to avoid
an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela. So, he sent horses, elephants,
chariots and men to Kharavela as a tribute.[56] According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, Kharavela's
army diverted its course after failing to advance against Satakarni.[57] According to Alain Daniélou, Kharavela was friendly
with Satakarni, and only crossed his kingdom without any clashes.[58]
Satakarni's successor Satakarni
II ruled for 56 years, during which he captured eastern Malwa from
the Shungas.[59] This allowed him access to the Buddhist site
of Sanchi, in which
he is credited with the building of the decorated gateways around the
original Mauryan Empire and Sunga stupas.[60] Satakarni II is known from a dedicatory inscription
at Sanchi.[52] He was succeeded by Lambodara. The coins of
Lambodara's son and successor Apilaka have been found in eastern Madhya
Pradesh.[11] However, Andrew Ollett argues that there is only
one Satakarni, as the alleged first Satakarni is assigned ten years, and the
second, fifty years by other scholars, but the only dated inscription of this
king is Candankheda seal from his reign's year 30, around 60 BCE, and he ruled
ca. 88-42 BCE.[61][62]
Art of Sanchi
The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment
of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. It was
heavily repaired under King Satakarni II. The gateways and the balustrade were
built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahanas. An
inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work of Satakarni
II's royal architect Ananda.[63] An inscription records the gift of one of the
top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the
artisans of the Satavahana Emperor Satakarni:
Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the
artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni[64]
Kadamba dynasty
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
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For other uses,
see Kadamba dynasty (disambiguation).
|
Kadambas of Banavasi Banavasi
Kadambaru |
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345–540 |
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Extent of Kadamba Empire,
500 CE |
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Status |
Empire |
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Capital |
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Common languages |
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Religion |
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Government |
Monarchy |
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• 345–365 |
Mayurasharma |
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• 516-540 |
Krishna Varma II |
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History |
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• Earliest
Kadamba records |
450 |
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• Established |
345 |
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• Disestablished |
540 |
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Today part of |
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Kadamba Kings (345–540) |
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|
(Banavasi branch) |
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(345–365) |
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Kangavarma |
(365–390) |
|
Bhageerath |
(390–415) |
|
Raghu |
(415–435) |
|
Kakusthavarma |
(435–455) |
|
Santivarma |
(455 -460) |
|
Shiva Mandhatri |
(460-475) |
|
Mrigeshavarma |
(475–485) |
|
Ravivarma |
(485–519) |
|
Harivarma |
(519–530) |
|
(Triparvatha
Branch) |
|
|
Krishna Varma I |
(455-475) |
|
Vishnuvarma |
(475-485) |
|
Simhavarma |
(485-516) |
|
Krishna Varma II |
(516-540) |
|
(543–566) |
|
_at_Talagunda.JPG)
The Talagunda pillar
Sanskrit Inscription of crown prince Santivarma (c. 450)
The Halmidi inscription at Halmidi village, usually dated 450
CE. is the earliest Kannada inscription issued by the Kadamba Dynasty
The Kadambas (345–525 CE) were an
ancient royal family of Karnataka, India, that
ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in
present-day Uttara Kannada district. The kingdom was
founded by Mayurasharma in c. 345, and at later times
showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. An indication of
their imperial ambitions is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its
rulers, and the marital relations they kept with other kingdoms and empires,
such as the Vakatakas and Guptas of northern
India. Mayurasharma defeated the armies of the Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with
the help of some native tribes and claimed sovereignty. The Kadamba power
reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma.
The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together
they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with autonomy. From
the mid-6th century the dynasty continued to rule as a vassal of larger Kannada
empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires
for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor
dynasties. Notable among these are the Kadambas of
Goa, the Kadambas of Halasi and the Kadambas of Hangal. During the
pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled the Karnataka region,
the Mauryas and
later the Satavahanas, were not natives of the region and
therefore the nucleus of power resided outside present-day Karnataka. The
Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the
language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka,
this era serves as a broad-based historical starting point in the study of the
development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an
important regional language.
Contents
·
1History
·
3Economy
·
4Culture
·
7Notes
History[edit]
Origin
_and_Hoysala_king_Veera_Ballala_II_(c.1196)_in_the_open_mantapa_of_the_Tarakeshwara_temple_at_Hangal.JPG)
Old Kannada
inscriptions of Kadamba king Kamadeva of the Hangal branch (c.1180) and Hoysala
king Veera Ballala II (c. 1196) in the open mantapa of the Tarakeshwara temple
at Hangal
There are several legends regarding the origin of the
Kadambas. According to one such legend the originator of this dynasty was a
three-eyed four-armed warrior called Trilochana Kadamba (the father of
Mayurasharma) who emerged from the sweat of the god Shiva under
a Kadamba tree. Another legend tries to simplify it by claiming Mayurasharma
himself was born to Shiva and Bhudevi (goddess
of the earth). Other legends tie them without any substance to the Nagas, and
the Nandas of northern India.[1] An inscription of c.1189 claims that Kadamba Rudra,
the founder of the kingdom, was born in a forest of Kadamba trees. As he had
"peacock feather"-like reflections on his limbs, he was called
Mayuravarman.[2] From the Talagunda inscription, one more legend
informs that the founding king of the dynasty, Mayurasharma was anointed by
"the six-faced god of war Skanda".[3]
Historians are divided on the issue of the geographical
origin of the Kadambas, whether they were of local origin or earlier immigrants
from northern India.[4] The social order (caste) of the
Kadamba family is also an issue of debate, whether the founders of the kingdom
belonged to the Brahmin caste as described by the Talagunda inscription,
or of local tribal origin. Historians Chopra et al. claim the Kadambas were
none other than the Kadambu tribe who were in conflict with the Chera kingdom
(of modern Kerala) during the Sangam era. The Kadambus find mention in
the Sangam literature as totemic
worshipers of the Kadambu tree and the Hindu god Subramanya. According
to R.N. Nandi, since the inscription states the family got its name by tending
to the totem tree that bore the beautiful Kadamba flowers, it is an indication
of their tribal origin.[5][6] However the historians Sastri and Kamath claim the
family belonged to the Brahmin caste, believed in the Vedas and performed Vedic
sacrifices. According to the Talagunda and the Gudnapur inscriptions, they
belonged to the Manavya Gotra and were Haritiputrās ("descendants
of Hariti lineage"), which connected them to the
native Chutus of Banavasi, a vassal of
the Satavahana empire.[7][8] According to Rao and Minahan, being native
Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance
to their language Kannada after coming to power.[9][10]
Birth of Kingdom
One of their earliest inscriptions, the Talagunda
inscription of crown prince Santivarma (c.450) gives what may be the most
possible cause for the emergence of the Kadamba kingdom. It states that
Mayurasharma was a native of Talagunda, (in present-day Shimoga
district of Karnataka state) and his family got its name from
the Kadamba tree that grew near his home.[11] The inscription narrates how Mayurasharma proceeded
to Kanchi in
c.345 along with his guru and grandfather Veerasharma to pursue his Vedic studies
at a Ghatika ("school"). There, owing to some
misunderstanding between him and a Pallava guard or at an Ashvasanstha ("horse
sacrifice"), a quarrel arose in which Mayurasharma was humiliated.
Enraged, the Brahmin discontinued his studies, left Kanchi swearing vengeance
on the Pallavas and took to arms. He collected a faithful group of followers
and routed the Pallava armies near the Srisailam region.
After a prolonged period of low intensity warfare against the Pallavas and
other smaller kings such as the Brihad-Banas of Kolar region,
he proclaimed independence. Unable to contain Mayurasharma, the Pallavas had to
accept his sovereignty.[12][13] The Talagunda inscription also confirms
Mayurasharma was the progenitor of the kingdom.[14][15][16] The inscription gives a graphic description of the
happenings after the Kanchi incident:
That the hand dexterous in grasping the Kusha grass,
fuel and stones, ladle, melted butter and the oblation vessel,
unsheathed a flaming sword, eager to conquer the earth[12]
Thus, according to Ramesh, in an act of righteous
indignation was born the first native kingdom of Karnataka, and the Pallava
King Skandavarman condescended to recognize the growing might of the Kadambas
south of the Malaprabha river as a sovereign power.[17][13] Majumdar however feels even an inscription as
important as the Talagunda pillar inscription leaves many a
detail unanswered.[18] Scholars such as Moraes and Sastri opine that
Mayurasharma may have availed himself of the confusion in the south that was
created by the invasion of Samudragupta who in his Allahabad inscription claims
to have defeated Pallava King Vishnugopa of Kanchi. Taking advantage of the
weakening of the Pallava power, Mayurasharma appears to have succeeded in
establishing a new kingdom.[2] According to epigraphist M.H. Krishna, Mayurasharma
further subdued minor rulers such as the Traikutas, the Abhiras, the
Pariyathrakas, the Shakasthanas, the Maukharis, the Punnatas and the Sendrakas.[19] The fact that Mayurasharma had to travel to
distant Kanchi for Vedic studies gives an indication that Vedic
lore was quite rudimentary in the Banavasi region at that time. The Gudnapur
inscription which was discovered by epigraphist B.R. Gopal states that
Mauryasharma, whose grandfather and preceptor was Veerasharma and his father
was Bandhushena, developed the character of a Kshatriya (warrior
caste).[20][19][16] Sen feels the successor of Mayurasharma, Kangavarma
changed his surname from "Sharma" to "Varma".[13]
Expansion
Mayurasharma was succeeded by his son Kangavarma in c.
365. He had to fight the Vakataka might
to protect his kingdom (also known as Kuntala
country). According to Jouveau-Dubreuil he was defeated by the
King Prithvisena but managed to maintain his freedom. Majumdar feels Kangavarma
battled with King Vidyasena of the Basin branch of the Vakataka kingdom with no
permanent results.[21][22][23] His son Bhageerath who came to power in c.390 is
said to have retrieved his fathers losses. According to Kamath, the Talagunda
inscription describes Bhageerath as the sole "lord of the Kadamba
land" and the "great Sagara" (lit, "great
Ocean") himself indicating he may have retrieved their losses against the
Vakatakas. But contemporary though Vakataka inscriptions do not confirm this.[21][13][16] His son Raghu died fighting the Pallavas in c.
435 though some inscriptions claim he secured the kingdom for his family. He
was succeeded by his younger brother Kakusthavarma in c.435. Kakusthavarma was
the most powerful ruler of the dynasty. According to Sastri and Moraes, under
the rule of Kakusthavarma, the kingdom reached its pinnacle of success and the
Talagunda record calls him the "ornament of the family". The Halasi
and Halmidi inscriptions also hold him in high esteem.[21][24][16][25]
From the Talagunda inscription it is known that he
maintained marital relations with even such powerful ruling families as the
imperial Guptas of the northern India. One of his daughters was married to King
Madhava of the Ganga dynasty. According to the Desai one of his daughters was
married to Kumara Gupta's son Skanda Gupta (of the Gupta dynasty), and from
Balaghat inscription of Vakataka king Prithvisena we know another daughter
called Ajitabhattarika was married to the Vakataka prince Narendrasena.[26][24][13][27][25] He maintained similar relations with the Bhatari
vassal and the Alupas of South
Canara. According to Desai and Panchamukhi evidence from
Sanskrit literature indicates that during this time the notable Sanskrit
poet Kalidasa visited the Kadamba court. Moraes and Sen feel the
visit happened during the reign of Bhageerath. According to Sen, Kalidasa was
sent by Chandragupta II Virakmaditya to conclude a marriage alliance with the
Kadambas.[26][28][13]
His successor Santivarma (c. 455) was known for his
personal charm and beauty. According to an inscription he wore three crowns (pattatraya)
to display his prosperity, thus "attracting the attention of his
enemies", the Pallavas. When the Pallava threat loomed, He divided his
kingdom in c.455 and let his younger brother Krishnavarma rule over the
southern portion and deal with the Pallavas. The branch is called the
Triparvata branch and ruled from either Devagiri in the modern Dharwad
district or Halebidu. Majumdar
considers Krishnavarma's rule as somewhat obscure due to lack of his inscriptions
though the records issued by his sons credit him with efficient administration
and an ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). It is known
that he possibly lost his life in battle with the Pallavas. According to the
Hebbatta record his successor and son Vishnuvarma had to accept the suzerainty
of the Pallavas despite showing initial allegiance to his uncle Santivarma
ruling from Banavasi whom he described in an earlier record as "lord of
the entire Karnata country".[29][24][30] In c.485, his son Simhavarma came to power but
maintained a low profile relationship with Banavasi. In the northern part of
the kingdom (the Banavasi branch), Santivarma's brother Shiva Mandhatri ruled
from c.460 for more than a decade. In c. 475 Santivarma's son Mrigeshavarma
came to the throne and faced the Pallavas and Gangas with considerable success.
The Halasi plates describes him the "destroyer of the eminent family of
the Gangas" and the "destructive fire" (pralayaanala) to
the Pallavas. His queen Prabhavati of the Kekaya family
bore him a son called Ravivarma. Mrigeshavarma was known to be a scholar and an
expert in riding horses and elephants.[24][30][31]
After Kakusthavarma only Ravivarma (c. 485) was able to
build the kingdom back to its original might during a long rule lasting up to
c. 519.[24][16] Numerous inscriptions from his rule, starting from
fifth up to the thirty-fifth regnal years give a vivid picture of his successes
which was marked by a series of clashes within the family, and also against the
Pallavas and the Gangas. He is credited with a victory against the Vakatakas as
well. A Mahadeva temple constructed during his rule finds mention in a Greek
writing of the period. According to the Gudnapur inscription, lesser rulers
such as the Punnatas, the Alupas, the
Kongalvas and the Pandyas of Uchangi were dealt with successfully. The crux of
the kingdom essentially consisted of significant areas of the deccan including
large parts of modern Karnataka. King
Ravivarma of the Banavasi branch killed king Vishnuvarma of the Triparvata
branch according to Moraes and successfully dealt with a rebelling successors
of Shiva Mandhatri at Ucchangi. The Pallava king Chandadanda (another name for
Pallava king Santivarman) also met the same fate according to Sathianathaier.
Ravivarma left two of his brothers, Bhanuvarma and Shivaratha to govern from
Halasi and Ucchangi.[32][33]
Decline
After Ravivarma's death, he was succeeded by his peaceful
son Harivarma in c. 519 according to the Sangolli inscription. According to the
Bannahalli plates, Harivarma was killed by a resurgent Krishnavarma II (son of
Simhavarma) of the Triparvata branch around c.530 when he raided Banavasi, thus
uniting the two branches of the kingdom.[33] Around c.540 the Chalukyas who were vassals of the
Kadambas and governed from Badami conquered the entire kingdom. The Kadambas
thereafter became vassals of the Badami Chalukyas.[34][24][16][35] In later centuries, the family fragmented into
numerous minor branches and ruled from Goa, Halasi, Hangal, Vainad, Belur,
Bankapura, Bandalike, Chandavar and Jayantipura (in Odisha).[36] That the Kadambas of Banavasi were a prosperous
kingdom is attested to by the famous Aihole inscription of the
Chalukyas which describes Banavasi in these terms:
Resembling the city of gods and a girdle of swans
playing on the high waves of the river Varada[37]
Administration[edit]
Old Kannada
inscription (1200 AD) of King Kamadeva of the Kadamba dynasty of the Hangal
branch
The Kadamba kings, like their predecessors the Satavahanas, called
themselves Dharmamaharajas (lit, "Virtuous
kings") and followed them closely in their administrative procedures. The
kings were well read and some were even scholars and men of letters.
Inscriptions describe the founding king Mayurasharma as "Vedangavaidya
Sharada" ("master of the Vedas"), Vishnuvarma was known for his
proficiency in grammar and logic, and Simhavarma was called "skilled in
the art of learning".[38][39]
This wisdom and knowledge from the ancient Hindu texts
called (the Smritis) provided guidance in governance. Mores identified
several important positions in the government: the prime minister (Pradhana),
steward of household (Manevergade), secretary of council (Tantrapala or Sabhakarya
Sachiva), scholarly elders (Vidyavriddhas), physician (Deshamatya),
private secretary (Rahasyadhikritha), chief secretary (Sarvakaryakarta),
chief justice (Dharmadhyaksha) above whom was the king himself, other
officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta), revenue officers (Rajjukas)
and the writers and scribes (Lekhakas). The Gavundas formed the elite
land owners who were the intermediaries between the king and the farmers
collecting taxes, maintaining revenue records and providing military support to
the royal family.[40] The army consisted of officers such as Jagadala, Dandanayaka and Senapathi.
The organization was based on the strategy called "Chaurangabala".
Guerrilla warfare was not unknown and may have been used often to gain tactical
advantage.[41][39]
A crown prince (Yuvaraja) from the royal family
often helped the king in central administration at the royal capital. Some
governed in the far off provinces. This experience not only provided future
security and know-how for the king to be, but also kept administration controls
within trusted family members. This is seen in the case of kings Shantivarma,
Kakusthavarma and Krishnavarma. King Kakusthavarma had appointed his son
Krishnavarma as viceroy of Triparvatha region. King Ravivarma's brothers Bhanu
and Shivaratha governed over Halasi and Uchangi provinces respectively. Some
regions continued to be under hereditary ruling families such as the Alupas,
the Sendrakas, the Kekeyas and the Bhataris. While Banavasi was the nerve
center of power, Halasi, Triparvata and Uchangi were important regional
capitals.[42][39] The kingdom was divided into provinces (Mandalas or Desha).
Under a province was a district (Vishayas), nine of which have been
identified by Panchamukhi. Under a district was a Taluk (Mahagramas)
comprising numerous villages under which were the villages in groups of ten (Dashagrama).
The smallest unit was the village (Grama) which appears to have enjoyed
particular freedoms under the authority of headman (Gramika).[42][39]
Apart from the various divisions and sub-divisions of the
kingdom, there was a concept of urban settlement. The fifth-century Birur
copper plate inscription of king Vishnuvarma describes Banavasi as "the
ornament of Karnata desa, adorned with eighteen mandapikas"
(toll collection centers) indicating it was a major trade center at that time.
Numerous inscriptions make reference to the rulers at Banavasi as
"excellent lords of the city" (puravaresvara). Excavations
have revealed that Banavasi was a settlement even during the Satavahana period.
By the fifth century, it was a fortified settlement and the Kadamba capital (Kataka).
A later inscriptions of c.692 of the Chalukyas refer to Banavasi and its
corporate body (Nagara) as a witness to the granting of a village to a
Brahmin by the monarch. A reference to the mercantile class (Setti)
further indicates the commercial importance of Banavasi.[43]
One sixth of land produce was collected as tax. Other
taxes mentioned in inscriptions were the levy on land (Perjunka), social
security tax paid to the royal family (Vaddaravula), sales tax (Bilkoda),
land tax (Kirukula), betel tax (Pannaya) and professional taxes
on traders such as oilmen, barbers and carpenters.[42][39] Inscriptions mention many more taxes such as
internal taxes (Kara and anthakara), tax on
eleemosynary holdings (panaga), presents to kings (Utkota) and
cash payments (Hiranya). The capital Banavasi had eighteen custom houses
(mandapika) that levied taxes on incoming goods.[44] In recognition of military or protective service
provided by deceased warriors, the state made social service grants (Kalnad or Balgacu)
that supported their family. In addition to erecting a hero stone which
usually included an inscription extolling the virtues of the hero, the grant
would be in the form of land. Such land grant could be as small as a plot, as
large as several villages, or even a large geographical unit depending on the
heroes status.[45]
Economy[edit]
Inscriptions and literature are the main source of
information about the economy and the factors that influenced it. According to
Adiga, from studies conducted by historians and epigraphists such as Krishna, Kalburgi, Kittel, Rice, B.R.
Gopal and Settar, it is clear the kingdom depended on revenues from both
agricultural and pastoral elements.[46] Numerous inscriptions, mainly from the modern Shimoga, Bijapur, Belgaum, Dharwad and Uttara
Kannada regions (the ancient divisions of Belvola-300,
Puligere-300, Banavasi-12,000) mention cattle raids, cowherds and shepherds.
The numerous hero stones to those who fought in cattle raids was an indication
of not only lawlessness but also of the importance of herding. The mention of
the terms gosai (female goyiti), gosasa, gosasi and gosahasra in
the adjective, the imposition of taxes on milk and milk products, the existence
of large cattle herds and the gifting of a thousand cows as a mark of the
donors affluence (gosahasram pradarum) indicate cow herding was an
important part of the economy.[46] There are records that mention the shepherd
settlements (kuripatti), cowherd settlements (turpatti) and
numerous references to small hamlets (palli).[47]
Mixed farming, a combination of grazing and cultivation,
mostly controlled by the wealthy Gavunda peasantry (today's Gowdas), seems to
be the thing to do, for both the quantum of grain produced and number of cattle
head determined opulence. There are several records that mention the donation
of both gracing and cultivable land in units of kolagas or khandugas to
either those who fought cattle thieves or to their families. A nomadic way of
life is not prevalent in most communities, with the exception of hill tribes
called Bedas. A semi-nomadic community, according to Durrett, they frequently depended on cattle thieving from
outlying farms and the abduction of women. The Bedas subsisted by selling to
merchants stolen cattle and such produce from the forest as meat, sandalwood
and timber, and crops from disorganized agriculture.[48]
From inscriptions three types of land are evident; wet or
cultivable land (nansey, bede, gadde or nir
mannu) usually used to cultivate paddy (called akki gadde,akki
galdege or bhatta mannu) or a tall stout grain yielding
grass called sejje; dry land (punsey, rarely mentioned) and
garden land (totta). A sixth-century grant refers to garden land that
grew sugarcane (iksu). Other crops that were also cultivated were barley
(yava), areca nut (kramuka), fallow millet (joladakey),
wheat (godhuma), pulses (radaka), flowers were mostly for temple
use and such lands called pundota, fruits such as plantains (kadali)
and coconuts are also mentioned.[49]
Village (palli) descriptions in lithic and copper
plate records, such as the Hiresakuna 6th-century copper plates from Soraba, included
its natural (or man made) bounding landmarks, layout of agricultural fields,
repairs to existing and newly constructed water tanks, irrigation channels and
streams, soil type and the crops grown.[50] Repairs to tanks and construction of new ones was a
preoccupation of elite, from kings to the Mahajanas, who claimed
partial land ownership or a percentage of produce irrigated from the tank or
both. Taxes were levied on newly irrigated lands, an indication the rulers
actively encourage the conversion of dry land to cultivable wet land.[51] An important distinction is made between types of
landholdings: Brahmadeya (individual) and non-Brahmadeya (collective)
and this is seen in inscriptions as early as the third-fourth century in South
India. Records such as the Shikaripura Taluk
inscription indicate occasionally women were village headmen and counselors,
and held land (gavundi).[52]
Functioning purely on the excess produce of the rural
hinterland were the urban centers, the cities and towns (mahanagara, pura,
and Polal) that often find mention in Kannada classics such
as Vaddaradhane (c. 900)
and Pampa Bharata (c. 940).
References to townships with specialized classes of people such as the diamond
and cloth merchants and their shops, merchant guilds (corporate bodies),
important temples of worship and religious hubs, palaces of the royalty,
vassals and merchants (setti), fortifications, courtesan streets, and
grain merchants and their markets are a clear indication that these urban
entities were the centers of administrative, religious and economic activity.[53]
Culture[edit]
Religion[edit]
The end of the Satavahana rule
in the third century coincided with the advent of two religious phenomena in
the Deccan and South India: the spread of Brahminical Hinduism, and Jainism and
Buddhism. This was a direct result of the Gupta dynasties ardent patronage to
Hinduism in northern India and their aversion to other religions.[54] According to Sastri, till about the fifth century,
South India witnessed a harmonious growth of these religions and the sects related
to them without hindrance. Appeasement of local deities and local practices
which included offerings of sacrifices often went alongside popular Vedic gods
such as Muruga, Shiva, Vishnu and Krishna.[55] However, from the seventh century onward, the
growing popularity of Jainism and Buddhism became a cause for concern to the
Hindu saints who saw the growth of these new faiths as heretic to mainstream
Hinduism. This new found Hindu resurgence, especially in Tamil country, was
characterized by public debates and enthusiastic rebuttals by itinerant saints.
Their main purpose was to energize and revive Hindu Bhakti among the masses and
bring back followers of sects considered primitive, such as the Kalamukhas,
Kapalikas and Pasupatas, into mainstream Hinduism.[56][57]
The Kadambas were followers of Vedic Hinduism as
evidenced by their inscriptions. The situation was the same with their
immediate neighbors, the Gangas and the Pallavas. According to Adiga, their
patronage to Brahmins well versed in the Vedas is all too evident. Inscriptions
narrate various land grants to Brahmins that specify their lineage (gotra)
as well as Vedic specialization.[58] According to Sircar, the early rulers called
themselves Brahmanya or Parama-brahmanya, an
indication of their propensity toward Vaishnavism (a
branch of Hinduism).[59] The founding king Mayurasharma was,
according to the Talagunda inscription, a Brahmin by birth though his
successors may have assumed the surnameVarma to indicate their
change to Kshatriya (warrior) status. An inscription of Vishnuvarma
describes him as the "protector of the excellent Brahmana faith". His
father Krishnavarma-I performed the Vedic ashvamedha ("Horse
sacrifice"). There are numerous records that record grants made to
Brahmins. According to Sircar, some fifth and sixth century inscriptions have
an invocation of Hari-Hara-Hiranyagarbha and Hara-Narayana
Brahman (Hari and Hara are another name of the Hindu gods Vishnu and Shiva).[60][61][62]
The Talagunda inscription starts with an invocation of
the Hindu god Shiva while the Halmidi and Banavasi inscriptions start with an
invocation of the god Vishnu. Madhukeshvara (a form of Shiva) was their family
deity and numerous donations were made to the notable Madhukeshvara temple in
Banavasi. Inscriptions mention various Shaiva sects (worshipers of the god
Shiva) such as Goravas, Kapalikas, Pasupatas and Kalamukhas. Famous residential
schools of learning existed in Balligavi and
Talagunda. Vedic education was imparted in places of learning called Agrahara and Ghatika.
However, they were tolerant to other faiths. The Kadamba kings appear to have
encouraged Jainism as well. Some records of King Mrigeshavarma indicate
describe donations to Jain temples and that King Ravivarma held a Jain scholar
in high esteem. Names of such noted Jain preceptors as Pujyapada, Niravadya
Pandita and Kumaradatta find mention in their inscriptions. Jainas occupied
commanding posts of importance in their armies.[60][62] According to Adiga, image worship, which was
originally prohibited, was now popularized among the common man and the monks.
This helped raise funds for the construction of Jain temples (Chaitya).
Installation of images of Jain monks (Jaina) in temples and a steady
move toward ritualistic worship among the laymen undermined the concept of
"quest for salvation" and the ascetic vigor of the religion.[63]
Grants were made to Buddhist centers as well. According
to Kamath, the royal capital Banavasi had long been a place of Buddhist
learning. In the seventh century, the Chinese embassy Xuanzang described
Banavasi as a place of one hundred Sangharamas where ten
thousand scholars of both the Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism
lived.[62][60] However, according to Ray, while there is evidence
to prove that certain pre-Kadamba royal families, such as the Mauryas and
Chutus may have patronized Buddhism, there is not much to say regarding the
ruling Kadamba family, vast majority of whose inscriptions are Brahminical
grants. In fact, according to Ray, the traces of Buddhist stupa sites
that have been discovered in Banavasi are located outside the town.[64]
Society[edit]
The caste system was prevalent in the organized Hindu
society with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas at the top. This had a deep impact
on such socially important events as marriage. Even Jainism and Buddhism which
initially found popularity by avoiding social hierarchy began to develop the
trappings of a caste-based society. This particular feature was, according to
Singh, a unique feature of Jainism in what is modern-day Karnataka during the
early medieval period. Both the sects of Jainism, the Digambara and
the Svetambara followed a strict qualification
process for persons worthy of initiation. Jinasena's
classic Adipurana counts purity of ancestry, physical health
and soundness of mind as the main attributes that made a person worthy of such
initiation. Both Jinasena and Ravisena (author
of Padmapurana) discuss the existence of a varna (distinction
or caste) based society and the responsibilities of each varna.[65]
Majumdar notes that the Buddhist and Jain literature of
the period accounts for the four varna by placing the
Kshatriya above the Brahmin. While the Brahminical literature points to a
tradition that permitted a Brahmin man to marry a woman of Kshatriya caste, a
Brahmin woman was not allowed to marry a non-Brahmin man. Just the contrary
seems to be the case with Buddhist and Jain literature which deema the marriage
of a Brahmin man to Kshatriya woman as unacceptable but that of a Kshatriya man
to a Brahmin woman as acceptable. Thus a caste system was in play with all the
three main religions of the times.[66] However, Majumdar does point out the highly
assimilate nature of the Hindu society where all the early invaders into India,
such as the Kushans, the Greeks, the Sakas and
the Parthians were all absorbed into the Hindu
society without a trace of their earlier practices.[67]
A unique feature of medieval Indian society was the
commemoration of the deceased hero by the erection of memorial stones ("hero stone").
These stones, the inscriptions and relief sculptures on them were meant to
deify the fallen hero. According to Upendra Singh, The largest concentration of
such stones, numbering about 2650 and dated to between the fifth and thirteenth
centuries, are found in the modern Karnataka region of India. While most were
dedicated to men, a few interesting ones are dedicated to women and pets. The
Siddhenahalli, the Kembalu and the Shikaripura hero stones extol the qualities
of women who lost their lives fighting cattle rustlers or enemies. The
Gollarahatti and the Atakur inscription are in memory
of a dog that died fighting wild boar, and the Tambur inscription of a Kadamba
king of the Goa branch describes his death from sorrow of losing his pet parrot
to a cat,[68] and the Kuppatur stone was in memory of a bonded
servant who was given the honorific "slayer of the enemy" (ripu-mari)
for bravely fighting and killing a man-eater Tiger with his club before
succumbing to his injuries.[69]
According to Altekar, the practice of sati appears
to have been adopted well after the Vedic
period, because there was no sanction for the practice in the
funeral hymns of the Rig Veda. According
to him, even in the Atharva
Veda, there is only a passing reference of widow being required to lie by the
side of her husband's corpse on the funeral pyre, then alight from it before it
was lit, for the chanting of hymns to commence that blessed her with future
wealth and children. This was an indication that window remarriage was in
vogue.[70] Altekar points out that even the authors of
the Dharmasutras (400 BCE – c.
100)and the Smritis (c.100-c.300), such as Manu
and Yagnavalkya, do not make any mention of any
ritual resembling sati in their description of the duties of
women and widows in society, but rather prescribed the path of worldly
renunciation as worthy.[71] It is from about c. 400 that the practice of sati begins
to appear in the literature of Vatsyayana, Bhasa (Dutagatotkacha and Urubhanga), Kalidasa (Kumarasambhava)
and Shudraka (Mirchchhakatika), with a real case in c.
510 when deceased general Goparaja's wife immolated herself on her husband's
pyre. Then around 606, the mother of King Harshavardhana decided
to predecease her terminally ill husband.[72]
This however did not find immediate support with noted
poets such as Bana (c.625) and other tantra writers
who considered sati inhuman and immoral.[73] However around c. 700, the tide began to turn in
northern India, especially in Kashmir, but found a later stronghold in
Rajasthan. The belief in sati began to appeal, especially to
the warrior classes, and the theory that performing sati cleansed
the deceased husband of earthly sins and assured the couple a place in heaven
caught on.[74] Occasionally concubines, mothers, sisters,
sisters-in-law and even ministers, servants and nurses joined in the act.[74] This took its time to reach the Deccan (Kadamba
territory) and the deep south (Tamil country) where the earliest cases,
voluntary as they were, are seen by about c.1000.[75] What was once a Kshatriya only practice came to be
adopted by the Brahmins and even some Jains from around c. 1000.[76] In the modern Karnataka region (Kadamba territory),
there are only eleven cases between c.1000-c.1400 and forty-one cases between
c.1400 – c.1600, mostly in the warrior communities indicating an overall lack
of appeal.[77]
Physical education was very popular with men. The
book Agnipurana encouraged men to avoid calisthenics with
either partially digested food in their body or on a full stomach. Bathing with
cold water after exercises was considered unhealthy. Medieval sculptures depict
youth in physical combat training, doing gymnastics such as lifting the weight
of the body with both hands, and doing muscular exercises such as bending a
crowbar.[78] The terms malla and jatti occur
often in literature indicating wrestling was a popular sport with the royalty
and the commoners. Wrestlers of both genders existed, the woman fighters meant
purely for the entertainment to a male audience. Several kings had titles such
as ahavamalla ("warrior-wrestler"), tribhuvanamalla ("wrestler
of the three worlds"). The book Akhyanakamanikosa refers
to two types of combative sports, the mushtiyuddha ("fist-fight")
and mallayuddha (or mallakalaga, "wrestling
fight"). Wrestlers were distinguished based on their body weight, age,
skill, proficiency and stamina. Those who exemplified themselves were
recognized and maintained on specific diets.[79]
Much of the information we get about activities such as
archery and hunting is from classics such as the Agni Purana (post
7th century) and others. The Agni Purana says "one who
has made the vision of both of his mental and physical eyes steady can conquer
even the god of death".[80] An archers proficiency, which depended as much on
his footwork as on his fingers and keen eyesight, was proven if he could hit
bullseye by just looking down at the target's reflection (Chhaya-Lakshya in Adipurana of c.
941, or Matsya-vedha in Manasollasa of c.
1129). Additional information is available in medieval sculptures which depict
various archery scenes including one where a lady is taking aim from a chariot.[81] Hunting was a favorite pass time of royalty in
forest preserves. It served as entertainment, physical exercise and a test of
endurance (mrigiyavinoda and mrigiyavilasa). The
medieval sculptors spared no effort in depicting hunting scenes. The Manasollasa describes
twenty one types of hunt including ambushing deer at waterholes with the
hunting party dressed in green and concealed in the hollows of trees. It
mentions a special breed of hunting dogs chosen from places such as the
modern Jalandhar, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Vidarbha which
were preferred for their stamina in chasing and cornering the prey. According
to the Vikramankadevacharita queens and courtesans accompanied
the king on horseback.[82]
Architecture[edit]
The Praneshvara
temple at Talagunda, dates from the late fourth century Kadamba rule.[83]
Bhuvaraha Narasimha
temple Halasi, Karnataka
Main
article: Kadamba architecture
According to Kamath, the Kadambas are the originators of
the Karnataka architecture. According to Moraes their architectural style had a
few things in common with the Pallava style. Kamath points out that their Vimana style
(sanctum with its superstructure) is a Kadamba invention. A good example of
this construction is seen in the Shankaradeva temple at Kadarolli in the modern
Belgaum district. The structures themselves were simplistic with a square garbhagriha (sanctum)
with an attached larger hall called mantapa. The
superstructure (Shikhara) over the sanctum is pyramidal with
horizontal non-decorative stepped stages tipped at the a pinnacle with a Kalasha (or Stupika).[84][85]
The beginnings of Kadamba architecture can be traced to
the fourth century based on evidence in the Talagunda pillar inscription of c.
450. The inscription makes mention of a Mahadeva temple of the
Sthanagundur Agrahara which Adiga identifies with the
protected monument, the Praneshvara temple at Talagunda. The Praneshvara temple
bares inscriptions of Queen Prabhavati (of King Mrigeshavarma) from the late
fifth century and of their son King Ravivarma. From these inscriptions, Adiga
concludes the temple existed in the late fourth century. Further, according to
Adiga, the pillar inscription supports the claim that the earliest structure
existed there as early as the third century and was under the patronage of the
Chutu Satakarnis of Banavasi.[83]
Most of their extant constructions are seen in Halasi and
surrounding areas with the oldest one ascribed to King Mrigeshavarma. Other
notable temples in Halasi include the Hattikesavara temple with perforated
screens by the doors, the Kallesvara temple with octagonal pillars, the
Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple and the Ramesvara temple which shows a Sukhanasa projection
(small tower) over the vestibule (Ardhamantapa) that connects the
sanctum to the hall. All temples at Halasi have pillars with decorative capitals.
The Kadamba style of tower was popular several centuries later and are seen in
the Lakshmi Devi Temple at Doddagaddavalli (built
by the Hoysalas in the 12th century) and the Hemakuta group of
temples in Hampi built in the 14th century.[86][87][85] In addition to temples, according to the art
historian K.V. Soudara Rajan, the Kadambas created three rock-cut Vedic cave
temples cut out of laterite at Arvalem in Goa. Like
their temples, the caves too have an Ardhamantapa ("half
mantapa") with plain pillars and a sanctum which contain images of Surya (the
sun god), Shiva and Skanda.[86][85]
In later centuries, Kadamba architecture was influenced
by the ornate architectural style of their overlords, the Kalyani
Chalukyas (Later Chalukyas). The best representations of this
style are seen in the Mahadeva temple at Tambdi Surla in modern Goa built
with an open mantapa in the late 12th-13th century by the
Kadambas of Goa;[88] the single shrined (ekakuta) Tarakeshvara
temple (modeled after the Mahadeva Temple, Itagi) built prior to
c.1180 with an open mantapa (and an ornate domical ceiling), a
closed mantapa, a linked gateway and a Nandi mantapa (hall
with the sculpture of the Nandi the bull);[89] the Madhukeshwara temple at Banavasi which shows
several Later Chalukyas style additions over a pre-existing Early Chalukya
surroundings;[90] and the 12th century, three shrined (Trikutachala)
Kadambeshvara temple with open and closed mantapa at
Rattihalli.[91]
·
_in_the_Tarakeshwara_temple_at_Hangal.JPG)
Tarakeshwara temple
at Hangal, built by the Kadambas of Hangal
·
Madhukeshwara
temple at Banavasi, built by the later Kadambas of Banavasi
·
The Mahadeva temple
at Tambdi Surla, Goa, built by the Kadambas of Goa
Language[edit]
According to the epigraphist D. C. Sircar, inscriptions
have played a vital role in the re-construction of history of literature in
India as well as the political history of the kingdoms during the early
centuries of the first millennium. Some inscriptions mention names of noted
contemporary and earlier poets (Aihole inscription of Ravikirti which mentions
the Sanskrit poets Kalidasa and Bharavi). The development of versification and
the Kavya style ("epic") of poetry appears first in
inscriptions before making their appearance in literature. Further some Kavya poets
were the authors of inscriptions too (Trivikramabhatta composed the Bagumra
copper plates and the Sanskrit classic Nalachampu).[92] In the early centuries of the first millennium,
inscriptions in the Deccan were predominantly in the Prakrit language. Then
came a slow change with records appearing in bilingual Sanskrit-Prakrit
languages around the middle of the fourth century, where the genealogy
information is in Sanskrit while the functional portion was in Prakrit.[93] From around the fifth century, Prakrit fell out of
use entirely and was replaced by the Dravidian languages. In the Kannada
speaking regions in particular, the trend was to inscribe in Sanskrit entirely
or in Sanskrit-Kannada.[94]
The credit of the development of Kannada as a language of
inscriptions between the fourth and sixth centuries goes to the Kadambas, the
Gangas and the Badami Chalukyas. Among the early ones are the Halmidi stone
inscription and the Tagare copper plates which are ascribed to the Kadambas.
While the main content of the inscriptions were in Sanskrit, the boundary
specifications of the land grant were in Kannada. In subsequent two centuries,
not only do inscriptions become more numerous and longer in size, these
inscriptions show a significant increase in the usage of Kannada, though the
invocatory, the implicatory and the panegyric verses are in Sanskrit.[95] Settar points out that there are inscriptions where
the implicatory verses have been translated verbatim into Kannada also. In fact
Kannada composed in verse meters start making their appearance in inscriptions
even before being committed to literature.[96]
Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main sources
of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gudnapur, Birur, Shimoga, Muttur,
Hebbatta, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of
the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of
Karnataka.[7] Inscriptions of the Kadambas in Sanskrit and
Kannada ascribed to Kadamba branches have been published by epigraphists
Sircar, Desai, Gai and Rao of the Archaeological Survey of India.[97] The Kadambas minted coins, some of which have
Kannada legends which provide additional numismatic evidence of their history.[98] The Kadambas (along with their contemporary Ganga
dynasty of Talakad) were the first rulers to use Kannada as an additional
official administrative language, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of c.
450. The historian Kamath claims Kannada was the common language of the region
during this time. While most of their inscriptions are in Sanskrit, three important
Kannada inscriptions from the rule of the early Kadambas of Banavasi have been
discovered.[99][100][101]
Recent reports claim that the discovery of a 5th-century
Kadamba copper coin in Banavasi with Kannada
script inscription Srimanaragi indicating
that a mint may have existed in Banavsi that produced coins with Kannada
legends at that time.[102] The discovery of the Talagunda Lion balustrade
inscription at the Praneshvara temple during excavations in 2013, and its
publication by the ASI in 2016, has shed more light on the politics of
language during the early Kadamba era. The bilingual inscription of c.370-380
written in Sanskrit and Kannada is now though to be the oldest inscription in
the Kannada language.[103]
In modern times[edit]
Kadambotsava ("The festival of
Kadamba") is a festival that is celebrated every year by the Government of
Karnataka in honor of this kingdom.[104] The creation of the first native Kannada kingdom is
celebrated by a popular Kannada film, Mayura starring Raj Kumar. It is
based on a popular novel written in 1933 with the same name by Devudu Narasimha Sastri.[105] On 31 May 2005 Defence minister of India Pranab
Mukherjee commissioned India's most advanced and first
dedicated military naval base named INS Kadamba in Karwar.[106]
The Indian
state government of Goa owned bus service is named after the Kadambas
Dynasty and is known as Kadamba Transport Corporation (KTCL).The
royal lion emblem of the Kadambas is used a logo on its buses. The lion emblem
logo became an integral part of KTCL since its inception in 1980 when the
Corporation was set up to provide better public transport service
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