SEA TRADE, SHIPPING AND ADMIN OF IT
'THE INDIAN OCEAN with the two seas, the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal opening into it, has, from the remote past, been the hub of seafaring
activities. i India, owing to
her geographical situation, with thousands of kilometre-long
shore-line protruding into this
vast expanse of water, has had no mean part in seafaring.” (Ancient
Indian Maritime Ventures
K. S. RAMACHANDRAN)
The Arabian Sea connects India with the Arabian Peninsula, while the
Bay of Bengal on the east, connects Burma, the Malay Peninsula and
the Archipelago.
Most of the trade of India with the west was over this sea, 1) through Palmyra or Petra and
the Persian Gulf or 2) through Berenice and other Red Sea ports. It
is said that at Clysma, near the Suez, a Byzantine official was stationed, ans
would visit India annually and to report
on
trade and political conditions.The early Indian settlers and
adventurers spread their culture in the South-East Asian countries including Burma,
Malaya, Indonesia and Indo-China begins with these people. The fleets of the
Chola kingdom of Madras and the equally Indian kingdom of Sailendra or
Srivijaya in Sumatra had a century-long struggle almost across 1000 miles of sea.
Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indus, all needed the Indian Ocean in an enviable position of being for
maritime ventures.
Ships and boats of India were built of wooden planks (
daru-phalakanij with ropes (yottdni) and with oars and rudders (phiyaritani)
masts (kupakaj carrying sails. eg Tamil the ship is known as kalam (vessel). more
often mara-kalam (wara = wood and = vessel). A description of the vessel
carrying the tooth-relic of the Buddha to Ceylon.is as follows; ‘firmly
constructed with planks, sewed together with ropes, having a well-rigged lofty
mast with a spacious sail and commanded by a skilful navigator’The ancient
technique still survives in India.
Yuktikalpataru, a treatise by Bhoja, the famous king of Dhara
shows how particular he was
about the selection of wood.’ He prohibits the use of iron
nails in the joinery of the bottom planks, especially in
ocean-going vessels, for iron would
be attracted by magnetic reefs and expose the ships to danger. ‘
Yjere were ordinary (samanya) and special (vis'esa), vessels mainly
on the basis of dimensions— length, breadth and height. The ordinary class was
further divided into ten sub-classes while the special class was classified into dirgha and
unnata;
It is also mentioned how a ship could be decorated and furnished
recommending a few
selected metals and the prows had a variety of shapes : heads of
lion,
buffalo, serpent, elephant, bird and men, etc. The masts of ships
numbered from one to four and
The ships were provided with cabins also like sarvamandira,
madhyamandira and
agramandira vessels ; the cabins extending from end to end, being
only in the middle or at
the end respectively.
In the Tamil Sangam works also several classes of ships and boats
are mentioned like
ambi, pahri, odam, padagu and timil in which ambi and padagu are
small crafts mainly
for river navigation, Timil a small fishing boat. Periplus
mentions that two varieties of large ships were used for seafaring ; the first,
sangara,
Buddhist literature, the Mahavamsa, the Pitakas, the Nikayas, and
the Jatakas, particularly
the Janaka, Vdlahassa, Samudda-vanija and Safikha jatakas, besides
the Avadanas, refer to
ocean-going with hundreds of passengers and crew. Jain works,
like Avajyakacurtii and
Brihatkalpasutrabhdsya are full of voya-
ges over the sea and contain nautical jargon equipment necessary
for rowing, the oars, rudders, poles, etc. several classes of winds, sixteen in
number, conducive for navigation are also listed. The epics, the Ramayana and
the Mahabhdrata and the Matsya, Vardha, Mdrkandeya, etc. Puranas also refer to
voyages, so is mentioned in Kavya, Natak, and prose works like Raghuvamsa, Ratndvali, Dasakumdracarita,
Kathdsaritsdgara, Pancatantra, Rdja-
tarahgim, etc., the Silappadikaram Manimekalai, Pattinappdlai,
Madurai-
kkdnji, Ahandnuru, Purandnuru , etc., ..they not only have
descriptions of sea voyages but
a vivid description of the ports, emporia, articles of trade,
etc.
Several foreign travellers and geographers viz., Megasthenes,
Pliny, the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, Strabo,
Ptolemy, Cosmos Indikopleustes, Fa-hien, Yuan-Chwang, I-tsing and many Arab
writers have written about it and Periplus is of utmost importance, for, ‘its
author had doubtless visited the seats of commerce on the western coast of
India, and his account is invaluable for the directness and accuracy that
generally characterize it.’
‘The Avadanasataka mentions that big ships were manned by
different kinds of navigators, such as the dhara, ndvika,
kaivarta, and karnadhara. Ahara
piloted the vessel towards the shore, kaivarta was the navigator
in
the river, karriadhara was operating the rudder and steered the
boat, and ndvika was an ordinary
sailor. From other sources it is understood that, apart form the
above there were other grades
of sailors as well. Thus kuksidhara propelled the vessel with the
aid of a long bamboo or pole.
The ordinary rating or seaman was known as kammakara and
garbhajakkah ; niryamaka re-
presents a sailor. From one of the jatakas it is gathered that the
crew were under the overall
control of jalaniryamaka or jettaka, terms denoting the captainof
the vessel. ‘
According to the Arthashstra, the crew were of the following
categories Sdsaka. niyd-
maka, datrarasmigrdhaka and utsecaka. Sdsaka was the captain of
the ship; niydmaka was a
steersman or the pilot; datrarasmigrdhaka was a manipulator of the
cutter and ropes, perhaps
a person engaged in rigging or bringing down the sails. It may
also be possible that he was
employed to drop the anchor as well. Utsecaka’s duty was to bail
out the seepage water and keep
the boat dry. The same work also mentions that the leader of a
fleet of ships was known as
mahdsdrtha.
The Navigation Department was under the charge of a Ndvddhyaksa,
the controller
of shipping, who had to obey the rules and restrictions
imposed by the pattanddhyaksa, an officer of the state comparable
to the Commissioner of
Ports of modern times who
in turn regulated the
traffic over water and kept the vessels in good repair or
condemned the unserviceable ones.
IN Indian art as well figures of ships, barges or boats are to be
found at Bharhut, Sanchi. Bodhgaya, Ajanta, Amaravati, in the Museum at Goa,
etc. A few viragals erected in honour of those who lost their lives in naval
encounters have also been found near Bomaby. a few coins
of the Andhra kings bore replicas of ships. *5
Bharhud® and is datable to the second century b.c. It shows two
boats, with three sailors
in each ; one of which together with its crew is being swallowed
by a big fish with rows of serrated teeth, possibly representing a sea-monster.
The crew of the other boat look stunned by this calamity and have stopped
rowing, as evidenced by the idle oars seen on the starboard side.
But for the big fish and the depiction of the calamity that has
befallen the boat, it is hardly concei-
vable that these boats could be ocean-worthy. The boats seem to
have been made of planks
joined with dowels. Of these two, one is deep and short and the
other long and low. The prow
of the latter is high.
The front face of the south pillar in the lower panels of the
eastern gateway of Sanchi is an ordinary river boat^"^ carrying on board a
bearded ascetic and is being manned by two men. The other one is seen in the
upper panels of the south face of the north pillar in the western gateway.
We have the coins of the Satavahana ruler Yajnasri Satakarni where
two types of
ships figure on the obverse. The ships portrayed in the
Purndvaddna panel at Ajanta and those found on the coins of Satavahana ruler may
be are for plying in the rivers or in calm waters and were propelled by oars or
poles and other types are ocean-going argosies.
A few sculptural reliefs of ships, real ocean-going vessels are
evn in Borobudur.
‘The excavations at the Broach town-site near the river Narmada by
the Archaeolo-
gical Survey of India revealed a mud rampart in the earlier period
which in historical times was
heavily revetted with large-sized bricks of the early historical
period. The ceramic contents
consisted of Red Polished Ware, plain red and grey wares
associated with historical period.
The occupation here continued without any break till
seventh-eighth century a.d. Unfortuna-
tely, however, no vestiges of structures were unearthed.’
Surparaka, Muziris, Camara, Poduca and Tamralipti were other ports.
The ships at Surparaka were forcibly escorted under armed guards
to Barygaza which highlights importance Surparaka had. Ships from the Red Sea
ports sailed direct to Muziris as it was an important trading- post in the west
coast.
‘Exports from here comprised pepper from the neighbouring areas,
fine pearls in large quantities, silk, spikenard from Ganges, malabathrum,
transparent stones, sapphires, tortoise shells from Chryse and nearby islands,
etc. Muziris imported coins in great quantity, topaz, some thin clothing,
figured linens, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper, tin, lead, realgar,
orpiment, a little wine and wheat according to the requirements of the sailors.’
Camara of the Periplus is Puhar (modern Kaverippat-
tinam) on the banks of the river Cauvery which was the capital
of the Chola monarchs of the Sangam Age. Sangam works like the
Silappadikaram, Manime-
kalai and Pafiinappalai have several references and aapreciation
of this sea-port. ‘Ships entered this port without slackening the sails and the
large quantities of precious goods carried by these lay stacked along the
beach.- The market place abounded in palatial abodes built on high po-
diums^s and flags fluttered over them. Perhaps some were
werehouses. The goods here were
stamped with the Chola insignia, the tiger. A curious custom
prevalent in this city was to
make offerings of rice and sugar to the packages of merchandise. ‘
'‘O In Maruvurpakkam, near the sea, were residences and
warehouses.
Here the foreigners vending a variety of merchandise lived in a
spirit of camaraderie. Again
the Pattinappalai describes these foreigners as a large throng on
a festive day. It looked as
though, they, speaking different languages, have settled down here
on mutual friendship.
The same work refers to the high sense of honesty and code of
ethics of the merchant class. ^2
In the harbour high-masted ships with fluttering flags swayed like
the elephants fretting
and fuming and rubbing against the posts to which they are
tied.'*^ The Silappadikaram also
refers to the existence of lighthouses to guide the shore-bound
ships.'*'*
Horses from other countires, black pepper, gems and gold, sandal
and agil, pearls, coral
and articles from Kadaram were some of the merchandise on sale at
this port-town. “
Recent excavations in and around Kaverippattinam have confirmed this.
A massive structure akin to a platform measuring 18.28 x 7.6 m.,
with vestiges of two wooden posts driven into the earth close to
the structure, has been found.
At Vanagiri, a semi-circular water tank was found; while at
Pallavanee-
svaram a vihara with five square rooms and a common verandah was
unearthed.
Poduca on the eastern coast Arikamedu, a suburb of Pondicherry
in Tamilnaduand excavations in 1945 revealed a huge and massive
structure
about 150 feet (4572 m.) long, oblong in shape and with a single
partition wall, which the ex-
cavator which is supoose to be a warehouse built around 50 AD.
Also vestiges of other buildings were also found. Two gems — carved intaglios,
datable to the first centuries b.c.-a.d. ; two handled amphorae, Mediterranean
wine-jars; Arretine Wares, belonging to the class terra sigillata and of
indubitable Roman origin, and Rouletted Wares, also of Roman origin; and Roman
lamp. May be this was a ‘treaty port’ where foreign traders lived permanently
and recei-
ved goods from the seasonal ‘deep-sea merchantmen’ Tamralipti on
the mouth of the Ganga was an important trading centre on the east coast. It
was the terminal port for east-bound ships. The Vinaya texts and the Jatakas
inform us that merchants from Sahajati, Kausambi, Varanasi, Pataliputra and
Campa brought their goods to Tamralipti to be exported to South-East Asia.
Excavation on this site by the Archaeological Survey of India
revealed a sequence of four
periods from the neolithic to eighteenth-nineteenth centuryincluding
an evidence of
Roman contact. Both literary and otherwise evidences prove that
there were early Indian settle-
ments in the South-East Asian countries. And the impact of the
Indian culture, religion, political and social ideas, etc., has been so great
and so effective as to persist even today.
References
1 For the importance of the Indian Ocean in regard to the history
of India, see K.M Panikkar. Imlia anil the Iniluin Oiean,
London. 1951 and also Geographical Factor\ in Indian Hiitory .
Bhavan's Book University. Bombay. 1955. pp 56-71. by
the same author.
2 O.H K Spate. India and Pakuhin. 2nd edition. London. 1957, pp.
153-54
3. Ibid., pp .xxx-xxxi.
4. Ibid., p. XXIX
5 Ratilal N .Mehta, Pre-Buddlmt India. Bombay, 1939, pp 230 -31
6. From Dhatodhdto \amso as quoted by Radhakumud Mookerji. Indian
Shipping. London, 1912. p 31
7 Ibid., pp 19-31 for more details about ship-buildmg
8 One cubit is roughly equal to 45 7 cm.
9. N. Subramaman. Sangam Polity. New York, 1966. p. 241
10. KA Nilakanta Sastri, The Cola.s, Madras, 1955. p 85
1 1. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Foreign Notices of South India.
.Madras, 1939. p 7.
12. R.P. Kangle, The Kuutiliya ArthasUstra . part II, Bombay.
1963, p 187
13 ArthasSstra 2 2%
14. Motichandra. SUrihuiaha (in Hindi). Patna, 1953. pp 229-231
15. Appropriately enough the Andhra kings assumed the title
‘tnsamudrhdhipati’
16 Alexander Cunningham. The Stupa oj Bharhiit A Buddhist
monument. London. I879.pl XXXIV(2)
17. John Marshall and Alfred Foucher. The Monuments oj Sancht. pi.
LI b.
18. Ibid . pi. LXW a.
19. F C Maisey. Sancht and its Remains. London. 1892. pi X.XI. fig
2
20. James Fergusson. Tree and Serpent Worship. London. 1868. pi
LXVHl
21 Motichandra. op cit.. pi, 13
22 A Cunningham. Mahahodhi ui The Great Buddhi.si Temple undei the
Budht Tiec at Buddha-Ga\ a . London. 1892, pi VTIl, 9.
23, G. Yazdani. .4janta, Plates II. pi, XLIl
24. Ibid . IV, pi LI(a)
25 Ibid , 1. pi XIX The painting, however, is very indistinct
26 Baijnath Pun. India in Classical Greek Writings, Ahmedabad.
1963, p 161.
27. Ibid . p. 33.
28. Ibid., p 167
29. This list is based on the Periptus as quoted by Sastri (1939)
op cit. pp. 56-60 Names within brackets signify their present
identification
30. Sastri. op. cit , pp. 66 ff.
31. Ibid.pp.llK
32. Mahaniddesa as quoted by Balram Srivastava. Trade and Commene
in Am tent Indio. Varanasi. 1 9b8. pp 109- 110
33. Sastri. op. cit , p 108
34 Indian .4nhaeologi 1959-60 — .4 Resiew, p. 19.
35 Balram Srivastaxa. op cii . pp 89-90
36. Wilfred H. Schofi'. The Penplus of the Enthrean Sea. New York.
1912, p. 287.
37. Purundnurii 30. lines 11-14.
38. Paltinapprdui. lines 142-148
39 Ibid., line 135,
INDIA'S CONTRIBUTION TO WORLD THOUGHT AND CULTURE
40 Sdappadikaram . V. lines 7-58. The description of Puhar with
its se\eral streets in Maru\ urpakkam. each recognized b\ the
vocations practised by the residents therein and the palatial
buildings in Pattinappakkam is picturesque and complete
in detail.
41 Piittincippalai, lines 213-17
42 /W . lines 199-212
43 Ibid., lines 172-74.
44 Sihippadikarum ,\'l. line 141 ; Perumpat/iirrupudcti . lines
346-50
45 Indian Archueology 1962-63— .4 Review, p 13.
46 Ibid.. 1964-65 (in the press)
47. Ibid.. 1963-64. p. 20 Kilaxur. Vanagiri, Manigramam and
Pallavaneesvaram are very near Kaveripattinam and in ancient
times must have formed part of the Choja capital. Puhar
48 REM. Wheeler, et al 'Arikamedu an Indo-Roman Trading-station on
the East Coast of India'. .Indent India, no 2,
Delhi. 1946. pp 17-24,
49. Ibid..p.\9
50. Indian .Iiduieologx 1954-55—^ Review pp 19-20.
51. For an e.xhaustive study of this phase in Indian History see.
R.C. Majumdar. Hindu Colonies in the Fur East. 2nd edition.
Calcutta. 1963. and B Ch. Chhabra. Expamion o/ Indo-.Iryan
Culture. Delhi. 1965. and K A Nilakanta Sastri. History
of Sri lijaya. Madras. 1949,
52 Heinrich Zimmer. The Art of Indian .Isia. New York, 1955 and
Ananda K Coomaraswamy. History of Indian and Indonesian
.Art. Leipzig. 1927.
53 Subramanian, op. cit.. p 148
54. Purum . 126. lines 14-16.
55. ^ilappadikanim. XXVH. lines 124-26.
56 Maduraikkanji. lines 75 ff
57. South Indian Inscriptions. II part iii. p 356.
58. Ibid.
59. C Minakshi, Administration and Social life under the Pallavas.
Madras, 1938, p. 70
60. Epigraphia Indica. XVIII. p. 152 and note.
61 Sastn (1955). op. cit . p. 172
62. Ibid., p. 183
63 South Indian Inscriptions. II. part ii. p. 109. Sastri
identified Nakkavaram. Pannai. Malaivur. Mayirudingam. Ilangasoka.
Mapappalam. Talaitakkola, Madamalmgam. llamuridesam with Nicobar
Islands. Pam or Panel in Sumatra. a locality
in Malaya. Grahi at Jiya (Malaya), a place south of Kedah,
Pappahalam in lower Burma. Takkola and Temiling or Tem-
bellmg. a locality in northern Sumatra (Lamuri of the Arabs).
64. Spate, op cit.. p. 155.
65 Sastri (1939). op. cit.. p 1.
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