a)
From ancient times till about the
beginning of the 18th century a large extent its supplies of
fine cotton and silk fabric, spices, indigo, sugar, drugs, precious stones and
many works of art from India was trade all over the world, in exchange of gold and silver.
b)
From the production of delicate woven
fabrics, in the mixing of colours, to the working of metals and precious
stones, the preparation of essences and in all manner of technical art, surgical instruments of great delicacy and
accuracy Indians exclled on global level and the art of heat treating steel
especially tempering steel was learnt from India by other people.
c)
The mercantile community was very
enterprising, daring and yet was high in honesty, principle based trade,
ethics, trustworthiness and resilience.
d)
Knowhow of manufacturing, maintenance,
and logistics needed for ship building and port management was existing. Huge
ships for ocean travel, deep knowledge of sea routes, monsoon winds and other
navigational aspects was of high regard.
e)
Indian culture, festivals and social
events like fairs, melas, yatras, were an important means for not only
religious and cultural but also commercial activities and they were not just held
in every part of the country during those times but are still prevailing in
nooks and corners of this vast land. There discussing religious, national topics,
entertainment and trade was so seamlessly woven and this decentralization was
essential for a society loving peace as
well as prosperity. It also integrated land with inter-provincial and
inter-state trade.
f)
To facilitate trade and commerce roads
were constructed all over the land from east to west and from north to south
and there were mile stones and plantation of trees. All the rivers including Ganga
were used for carrying goods. Pataliputra to NW frontier and from Kasi and
Ujjain to the great sea-ports of Western India till the port of Tamralipti were
royal roads of several thousand kilometres were made. ‘Through this principal
port in Bengal India carried extensive
trade with China, Ceylon, Java and Sumatra with important towns like Arikamedu,
Kaveripattanam, Madurai, Cranganore, Nagapattanam, Mahabalipuram, Calicut,
Cochin, Mangalore, Tamralipti, Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjaini, Kausambi,
Mathura, Taxila, Aihole, Paithan, Surat, Lothal, Sopara, Broach, Kalyan, etc.’
g)
During the early period (Vedic age) the
currency was a gold coin called Nishka. Karshapana mentioned by Panini was in
gold, silver and copper The superintendent of the mint was Laksanadhyaksha and
an officer known as Rupadarsaka was entrusted the work of checking the coins so
minted for purity and weight. Varaha circulated during the Badami Chalukyan
period, Kasu circulated during the Chola rule and Pagoda of the Vijayanagar
period.
h)
‘India had established trade and
commercial relations with Sumer, Egypt and Crete. Lothal in Gujarat was one of
the biggest port towns of that period with a huge dockyard constructed out of
brick. In the Old Testaments, we have reference to trade between India and
Syrian coast dating back to 1400 B.C. According to the chronicles of the Jews,
during the reign of King Solomon (c.800.B.C.), a navy equipped by Hiram, King
of Tyre, undertook a triennial voyage to the eastern countries and brought back
with it gold, silver, ivory, apes, peacocks, Almug trees, jewels and precious
stones. Ophir was the port at which they loaded these goods in the ships and
this Ophir have been identified with the port Abhir or Sopara on the western
coast of India by scholars.’
i)
spices and perfumes, precious stones
such beryl and silks, muslins and cotton were paid for in gold and silver by
the Roman traders from ancient times. Pliny in 77 A.D. lamented the wasteful
expenditure on perfumes and personal ornaments which drained the Roman Empire, as
Indian items were sold at 100 times their original price. Manufacturing
activity included that of chariots, wagons, arms and agricultural implements
and building of ships as per Greek writers. There were richly embroidered
dresses in gold duly adorned with precious stones, flowered robes made of fine
muslin were common. A committee of the municipal board of Patliputra was
entrusted with the supervision of manufactured articles and number of foreign
residents in Patliputra were also traders. “Sweet fine wines, pigments,
glass-vessels, costly vessels of silver, singing boys and beautiful maidens for
the harem and choicest ointment were some of the articles imported in India
while India exported fine silks, muslin, spices, perfumes, medicinal herbs,
indigo, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, iron, steel, etc.” Even teak, drugs,
perfumes, shoes, black salt, spices, indigo, textiles, muslin, were very
common.
j)
from the Kalinga ports, the Guptas
increased their eastern trade and Tamralipti was the principal port in Bengal,
while in Tamilnadu, Kaveripattanam and Tondai , Malbar coast Kottayam and
Muziris (modern Crangnore) were the main ports. Chandragupta II opened up the western trade and the wealth of
the Roman Empire and western coast like Broach, Sopara, Cambay and Kalyan.
etc.Many arabs even srttles in western coast and were allowed to practice rheir
religion. China, Sindh and the Persian Gulf used to anchor at Broach and
merchandise from every country was found there. By 15th AD “Calicut
became one of the busiest ports in the west coast and merchants from South
Africa, Abyssinia, and Arabia brought their merchandise to this port for
distribution in India. Many ships from Pegu and Malacca on their way to Red Sea
halted at Calicut and carried Indian goods for distribution to various
directions. The Arabs who till then had monopolized India’s overseas trade had
to make way for the Portuguese. Some of the items exported were cloths, rice,
iron, saltpeter, sugar and spices while pearls, copper, coral, mercury,
vermilion, elephants and horses were imported.”
k)
The business community was also politically active and had say in civic bodies, they
were instrumental in not just economic but also cultural progress of the
country, as they sponsored even excavation of caves and building of temples and
promoting of folklore and astrology.
l)
Merchants and traders were organized
into different well carved aggregates like guilds and were called Nigamas,
Sresthi-Vanijas and Sarthavahas gana,
pasanda, puga, vrata, sreni and nigama by several experts like Kalidasa,
Katyyana, Narada. Panini defines Sreni as a group of people with common craft
or trade. Merchant guild was Nigama, trades and finance work was controlled
generally by Sresthin. Manu and predecessors talk of guilds as a sub section of a larger body
called Samuha or Varga and each of them
functioned according to some set
established rules’
m)
Yajnavalka explained that the business
of the group was very meticulously managed by a process of election who also
did judicial duties alongwith their executive work. According to Katyayana there were four grades of
partnership model viz Sikshaka (apprentice), Abhijna
(advanced student), Kusala (expert) and Acharya (teacher).
n)
‘Guilds were hence autonomous bodies which enjoyed
their own rules, regulations and bye-laws, and they were usually accepted and respected by the state. In fact State had no interference policy which was
very imporatnt for such system.Many of these guilds were prosperous. Say Ivory workers of Vidisa or diamond workers in Gujarat are even today known
for prosperity , In the 1st century A.D., they were in a position to offer one of the four
porticoes of the great stupa at Sanchi. The Mandasor inscription also reveals that the guild of silk weavers at
Dasapura built a magnificient Sun temple in the city in A.D.
436. they also repaired it in 472 A.D.’
o)
‘To resist depredation by highway robbers on merchants Merchant guilds
arose as a front, who used to traverse
long distance with their goods through insecure roads. later these guilds extended their activities and acted as banks; loan givers
on interest and also were involved in many philanthropist activities. Slowly as
they garnered good power, they were empowered to even give justice and make
local laws which were attested by king and they were made members of royal
courts. To create and feel proud of their respective identity, every guild was
having a special seal (namamudra)
made of bronze, copper, ivory or stone,a banner and ceremonial flywhisks which
were carried in procession during festivals. These were self made and certified
by them or conferred by royal charters. Guild masters were nominated by
hereditary succession or by election and and were having names like Jyesthaka (elder), Sresthin (best) and
Mahattama (most important). he was member of
assemblies convened by the king and of regional councils and generally
was assisted by a secretary (Kayastha).’”The guild master could give justice
and even expel refractory or disloyal member. He was also the head of the small
army for own security. During wartime these small armies would merge in the
royal army.’
p)
“At Basarh the ancient Vaisali, 274 sealing were found of a joint guild of
bankers, traders and transport merchants which had a great reputation and
status and was a hallmark of the great Gupta Empire.”
q)
“On the basis of various epigraphical
sources and the Jatakas a comprehensive list of 24 occupations
in which guild organization existed has been given. There are references about
the guilds of weavers, braziers, oil-millers, bamboo-workers, druggists,
potters, corn-dealers and of artisans fabricating hydraulic engines. These
guilds were self-governing corporations. These guilds brought members of the
same profession or craft together, regulated their business on mutual goodwill
and served as banks giving loans and receiving deposits on interest. The rate
of interest varied from two to twelve percent per annum. These guilds regulated
productions, fixed prices and wages and prevented unhealthy competitions. They
also trained apprentices.”
r)
“The Pandyan kings sent embassies to
Rome and had employed Roman soldiers as guards. There was a colony of Yavana
merchants at Kaveripattanam. That Roman gold poured largely into Tamil country
at this period is attested by the numerous Roman coins dating from the reign of
Augustus to that of Zeno (B.C. 27 to A.D. 491) which have been found buried in
different parts of Tamilnadu.”
s)
The Cholas (10th century
A.D.) gave further acceleration to foreign trade. Manigramam, Nanadesis and
Ainnurruvar were the merchant guilds which participated in the sea-borne trade
which extended up to the Persian Gulf in the west and Indonesia and China in
the east. The Chola rulers sent traders to China as well crossing Tibet. Cotton
fabrics, spices, drugs, jewels, ivory, rhinoceros horn, precious stones and
aromatic products caused severe drainage of Chinese currency. The glorious
empire of Vijayanagar, made the ports on
the east and west coast buzzing with trade of Spices, iron ore, coconuts,
areca, jiggery, diamonds, limestone, rice ,textiles which were exported on a
very large scale while horses from Persia, armaments from Europe and other
goods like copper, coral, mercury and saltpetre were imported.
t)
In all above the guilds played a pivotal role e.g. The
Ayyavole guild with its headquarters at Aihole (Karnataka) visited different
countries and made grants for charitable purposes. This was in Chalukyan
period. During the Rashtrakuta period the banks of these guilds were so stable that
they gave an annual interest of 17%. During the Vijayanagar period, the guilds
called Vira Banajigas were very organized and influential, had officers like
Vadda Vyavahari and Pattanasvami. The office of Pattanasvami also organized
weekly fairs. In fact some of the highest government officials were conferred
by a title ‘Prithvisetty’ (Mayor of the
earth).’
u)
‘Thus India has been for many centuries
the final depository of a large portion of the metallic wealth of the world.’
‘India obtained gold not as did Europe from America in the 16th century
by conquest or rapine, but by the more natural and peaceful method of commerce;
by the exchange of such of her production which were highly prized by the
nations of West-Asia, Egypt and Europe and which they could not have obtained
from other places except India. (Radhakumud Mookerji- Indian Shipping,
Longmans Green & Co, 1912, pp: 83, 84.)’
(Trade
and Commerce in Ancient India https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2014/05/17/trade-and-commerce-in-ancient-india/
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